Ronald J. Billings

Association Between Infant Breastfeeding and Early Childhood Caries in the United States

OBJECTIVE. Despite limited epidemiologic evidence, concern has been raised that breastfeeding and its duration may increase the risk of early childhood caries. The objective of this study was to assess the potential association of breastfeeding and other factors with the risk for early childhood caries among young children in the United States. METHODS. Data about oral health, infant feeding, and other child and family characteristics among children 2 to 5 years of age (N = 1576) were extracted from the 1999–2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The association of breastfeeding and its duration, as well as other factors that previous research has found associated with early childhood caries, was examined in bivariate analyses and by multivariable logistic and Poisson regression analyses. RESULTS. After adjusting for potential confounders significant in bivariate analyses, breastfeeding and its duration were not associated with the risk for early childhood caries. Independent associations with increased risk for early childhood caries were older child age, poverty, being Mexican American, a dental visit within the last year, and maternal prenatal smoking. Poverty and being Mexican American also were independently associated with severe early childhood caries, whereas characteristics that were independently associated with greater decayed and filled surfaces on primary teeth surfaces were poverty, a dental visit within the last year, 5 years of age, and maternal smoking. CONCLUSIONS. These data provide no evidence to suggest that breastfeeding or its duration are independent risk factors for early childhood caries, severe early childhood caries, or decayed and filled surfaces on primary teeth. In contrast, they identify poverty, Mexican American ethnic status, and maternal smoking as independent risk factors for early childhood caries, which highlights the need to target poor and Mexican American children and those whose mothers smoke for early preventive dental visits.

Caries Risk Assessment in a Longitudinal Discrimination Study

Our objective was to develop and perfect a model for the assessment of risk of dental caries onset in children. Even though dental caries prevalence in children is continuing to decline, there is still a significant minority for whom it is a problem. In this study, we sought to ascertain whether a set of variables selected in a previous cross-sectional study could be used to differentiate between caries-free six-year-olds who would or would not subsequently present with clinically-detectable caries. A total of 472 caries-free six-year-olds—286 from a fluoridated community and 186 from a fluoride-deficient community-was selected. Clinical examinations for DMFS, dental fluorosis, and plaque were conducted. Stimulated whole saliva was collected for analysis of mutans streptococci, lactobacilli, total viable flora, and fluoride, calcium, and phosphate concentrations. A questionnaire was used for collection of demographic data as well as information on prior fluoride exposure, dietary habits, and oral hygiene practices. By means of linear discriminant analyses, it was possible to predict correctly which children would develop caries within six to 12 months (sensitivity) in 82.8% of cases and which children would not develop caries during that period (specificity) in 82.4% of cases.

Association of Free Arginine and Lysine Concentrations in Human Parotid Saliva with Caries Experience

We determined the free-amino acid content of stimulated parotid (ductal) saliva from two groups of adult subjects whose caries experiences were markedly different. The levels of free arginine and free lysine in the parotid saliva of caries-free adults were significantly higher than those found in the parotid saliva of individuals with a history of dental decay. There was no correlation, however, between the levels of these amino acids and the DMFS score within the caries-susceptible groups. Microbial catabolism of dibasic amino acids contributes to the neutralization of plaque acids and may partially account for the higher resting plaque pH observed in caries-free subjects. Alternatively, the elevations observed in free levels of arginine and lysine may reflect a systemic alteration in amino acid metabolism which is common to the caries-free group of subjects.

Caries status and overweight in 2‐ to 18‐year‐old US children: findings from national surveys

BACKGROUND The prevalence of overweight children in the United States continues to increase. OBJECTIVES To examine the relationship between being overweight and caries in primary and permanent dentition in a nationally representative sample of children. METHODS Data from the NHANES III (1988-1994) were analyzed using logistic regression and controlling for potential confounders for 10 180 children 2-18 years of age and from the NHANES 1999-2002 for 7568 children 2-18 years of age. RESULTS For children 2-5 years of age, there was no difference in caries experience among normal weight, at risk for overweight or overweight children for NHANES III and for NHANES 1999-2002. For children 6-11 years of age (NHANES III), at risk for overweight and overweight children were less likely to have caries experience in the primary dentition than normal weight children; overweight children were less likely to have caries experience in the permanent dentition than normal weight children. For children 12-18 years of age (NHANES III), overweight children were less likely to have caries experience in the permanent dentition than normal weight children. For children 6-11 years of age and 12-18 years of age (NHANES 1999-2002), there was no difference in having caries experience among normal, at risk for overweight and overweight children. CONCLUSIONS The data from NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2002 provide no evidence to suggest that overweight children are at an increased risk for dental caries. Although no differences in caries rates by weight were found in younger children, interestingly results from NHANES III suggest that being overweight may be associated with decreased rates of caries in older children.

Caries Risk Assessment by a Cross-sectional Discrimination Model

Although the prevalence of dental caries is continuing to decline, it still affects a majority of the US population and can be a serious problem for those afflicted. The objective of this project was to develop and perfect a model for assessment of risk of dental caries onset in children. In the first study, reported herein, a set of clinical, microbiological, biochemical, and socio-demographic variables was identified that distinguished, with an acceptable level of sensitivity and specificity, between children who had no previous caries experience and children who had high caries levels. A total of 313 children-age 12-15 years, 140 from a fluoridated community and 173 from a fluoride-deficient community-was selected on the basis of previous caries experience, either zero DMFS or high DMFS (> 6 in the fluoridated or ≥ 8 in the fluoride-deficient community). Clinical exams for DMFS, dental fluorosis, and plaque were conducted. Stimulated whole saliva was collected for analysis of mutans streptococci, lactobacilli, total viable flora, and fluoride concentration. A questionnaire was used for collection of demographic data as well as information on prior fluoride exposure, dietary habits, and oral hygiene practices. By means of discriminant analyses, with use of seven key clinical and laboratory variables, it was possible for zero-DMFS subjects to e classified correctly (specificity) in 77.6% of cases in the fluoridated community and in 86.1% of cases in the fluoride-deficient community. High-caries subjects were classified as such (sensitivity) in 79.3% and 88.1% of cases, respectively.

Use of an Intra-oral Model to Evaluate 0.05% Sodium Fluoride Mouthrinse in Radiation-induced Hyposalivation

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of a twice-daily topical application of a 0.05% NaF mouthrinse on de- and remineralization in the oral cavities of subjects suffering from radiation-induced hyposalivation. Six subjects each wore a bonded intra-oral appliance containing a sound and a demineralized human enamel slab for four weeks. During that period, the subjects used 0.05% NaF rinses, twice daily, instead of the 1.1% NaF gel that had previously been a part of their preventive regimen. Salivary flow rates, plaque pH profiles following a 10% sucrose rinse, S. mutans and lactobacillus counts, fluoride clearance, and enamel microhardness were determined during the study. Sound enamel samples displayed no evidence of demineralization, and the previously demineralized enamel showed remineralization in the outer 50 μm in three of the six subjects. The results suggest that a twice-daily oral rinse with 0.05% NaF can prevent demineralization and enhance remineralization in subjects with radiation-induced hyposalivation.

The Association of Basic Proline-rich Peptides from Human Parotid Gland Secretions with Caries Experience

To address whether there are associations between the peptide composition of human parotid saliva and dental decay (caries) experience, we have characterized the peptides from parotid ductal saliva collected from nine adults who have remained free from dental caries (mean age = 59.2; Decayed Missing Filled Surfaces index [DMFS] = 0) and nine individuals who have experienced caries (mean age = 51.2; mean DMFS = 38.4). Ethanol-soluble peptides were size-fractionated on columns of Bio-Gel P-2 ; the salivary peptides derived from caries-susceptible subjects appeared larger than those found in the saliva of caries-free subjects. Peptides were then resolved into 19 species by cation exchange HPLC. Sequence analysis identified 18 peptides that appear to be proteolytic cleavage products of the basic proline-rich proteins IB-4, IB-5, IB-7, IB-8b, and P-B. The peptides that were more abundant in saliva obtained from the caries-free group differed from those isolated from the caries-susceptible group. The median peptide concentration of one possible precursor protein, IB-7, was found to be higher in saliva collected from caries-free individuals than in that from caries-susceptible individuals. Although differences were found in the phenotypes of proline-rich proteins expressed by these groups of caries-free and caries-susceptible subjects, no statistically significant associations were observed among proline-rich phenotypes and the level of any peptide. Collectively, our results indicate that proteolytic processing of parotid salivary proteins differs among individuals who have remained caries-free and those who have experienced dental decay.

Prenatal Vitamin D and Dental Caries in Infants

OBJECTIVES: Inadequate maternal vitamin D (assessed by using 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25OHD]) levels during pregnancy may affect tooth calcification, predisposing enamel hypoplasia and early childhood caries (ECC). The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between prenatal 25OHD concentrations and dental caries among offspring during the first year of life. METHODS: This prospective cohort study recruited expectant mothers from an economically disadvantaged urban area. A prenatal questionnaire was completed and serum sample drawn for 25OHD. Dental examinations were completed at 1 year of age while the parent/caregiver completed a questionnaire. The examiner was blinded to mothers’ 25OHD levels. A P value ≤ .05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Overall, 207 women were enrolled (mean age: 19 ± 5 years). The mean 25OHD level was 48 ± 24 nmol/L, and 33% had deficient levels. Enamel hypoplasia was identified in 22% of infants; 23% had cavitated ECC, and 36% had ECC when white spot lesions were included in the assessment. Mothers of children with ECC had significantly lower 25OHD levels than those whose children were caries-free (41 ± 20 vs 52 ± 27 nmol/L; P = .05). Univariate Poisson regression analysis for the amount of untreated decay revealed an inverse relationship with maternal 25OHD. Logistic regression revealed that enamel hypoplasia (P < .001), infant age (P = .002), and lower prenatal 25OHD levels (P = .02) were significantly associated with ECC. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that maternal prenatal 25OHD levels may have an influence on the primary dentition and the development of ECC.

Teledentistry in inner-city child-care centres

In Rochester, NY, telehealth centres were established in six inner-city elementary schools and seven child-care centres. The teledentistry project complemented the existing telehealth model. Using an intraoral camera, telehealth assistants record digital images of childrens teeth (768 × 494 pixels) and send the images to a computer at the expert dental site (the Eastman Department of Dentistry at the University of Rochester). The paediatric dentist at the expert site reviews the images, and provides referral and treatment recommendations. Subsequently, the telehealth assistant contacts the childs parents or guardians and assists them to obtain appropriate dental care for their child. In the pilot study, we screened 50 children. In the first nine months of 2005, we screened 123 children. The results of our initial teledental screenings of children aged 12–48 months attending inner-city child-care centres revealed that almost 40% had active dental caries, mainly early childhood caries (ECC). For the first time, many children attending inner-city child-care centres have had their teeth examined at an early age and been given prompt feedback on the need for dental care.

Effect of Tobacco Smoke on the Oral Health of US Women of Childbearing Age

OBJECTIVES To determine the oral health status of US women of childbearing age and to analyze the effect of tobacco smoke on their oral health. METHODS Data from the 1999-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were evaluated for women 15-44 years of age. The association of exposure to tobacco smoke with untreated caries, mean DMFS, gingivitis, and periodontitis were examined in bivariate and regression analyses controlling for potential confounders. RESULTS The prevalence of untreated caries was 25%, for gingivitis 49%, and for periodontitis 6%. After adjusting for potential confounders, self-reported current smoking was a strong independent risk indicator for untreated caries, periodontitis, and to a lesser extent for greater DMFS count. Women with detectable cotinine levels below 15 ng/mL presented with an increased risk for gingivitis. Independent factors associated with increased risk for untreated caries were being Black, having less than a high school education, Medicaid or no health insurance, previous live births, and infrequent and episodic dental visits. Characteristics associated with gingivitis were being Mexican-American, obese, pregnant, and having infrequent dental visits. Older age, no insurance, and the last dental visit for treatment were independently associated with periodontitis. CONCLUSIONS Dental caries and periodontitis were prevalent among certain subgroups of women of reproductive age. Smoking was found to be a significant risk indicator for various negative oral health outcomes. Barriers to accessing to dental care that were manifested by untreated caries among Black women, mothers, and Medicaid beneficiaries must be better understood.