Ronald J. Fisher

The Potential Complementarity of Mediation and Consultation within a Contingency Model of Third Party Intervention

This article provides a conceptual rationale for the potential complementarity of international mediation and third party consultation or problem-solving within the context of a contingency model. Social conflict is viewed as a dynamic process involving a mix of objective and subjective factors which changes over time, thus creating opportunities for different third party interventions. In the model, the various methods of intervention (conciliation, pure mediation, consultation, power mediation, arbitration and peacekeeping) are matched to one of four stages of conflict escalation where they are deemed to have the most influence on de-escalation. In addition, third party interventions are sequenced within the model to show how combining different methods might work toward the eventual resolution of the conflict. Within this context, mediation and consultation are seen as having two main points of complementarity. In the first instance, consultation which improves the relationship between the parties can serve a useful prenegotiation function. The second point occurs at a higher stage of escalation wherein power mediation, which is deemed useful to control hostility and gain settlement on some substantive issues, is followed by consultation to analyse and de-escalate the conflict to a less intense level. The potential of the contingency model is illustrated through reference to the Cyprus conflict and the numerous third party interventions that have attempted to address it. The analysis indicates that the model helps provide some possible reasons for the success and failure of different interventions over a thirty-five year period. The article concludes that the matching and sequencing of different third party interventions may be necessary for positive influence, especially in highly escalated and protracted conflict.

Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict (2007)

Social-psychological concepts and findings have entered the mainstream of theory and research in international relations. Explorations of the social-psychological dimensions of international politics go back at least to the early 1930s.

Third party consultation: a method for the study and resolution of conflict

dimensions. Nevertheless it is suggested here, that they exhibit a core of common characteristics which warrants grouping them together under the term, third party consultation, after Walton ( 1969). This general method centers on the facilitative and diagnostic actions of an impartial third party consultant in helping antagonists understand and constructively deal with the negative aspects of their conflict. In part this involves the injection of social science theory relating to conflict processes. The approach is decidedly noncoercive, nonevaluative, relatively nondirective, and seeks exploration and creative problem-solving with respect to basic relationships, rather than settlement of specific issues through negotiation. Third party consultation can thus be distinguished from more traditional types of intervention on a number of dimensions, including the degree of coercion applied to the parties, the flexibility of the interaction, and the nature of the objectives. Many of these distinctions

Third Party Consultation as a Method of Intergroup Conflict Resolution

Third party consultation is a small group, problem-solving method for the study and resolution of social conflict. A statement of the major components of the method is followed by a review of studies involving intergroup conflict resolution in organizational, community and international settings. A number of theoretical issues are identified. Although the wide variety of practical applications are promising, the underlying theory is assessed to be rudimentary, and the supporting research lacks rigor and sophistication. Recommendations for future studies are coupled with a caution against prematurely assuming that the efficacy of the method has been adequately demonstrated. The scientist/-practitioner union is essential to developing an effective social technology of intergroup conflict resolution.

Cyprus: The Failure of Mediation and the Escalation of an Identity-Based Conflict to an Adversarial Impasse:

The Cyprus conflict is an intractable, identity-based conflict that has challenged the international community for over 40 years. This article provides an overview of the history and sources of the conflict, followed by a description of both official and unofficial third-party interventions. Formal mediation, primarily by the United Nations, has consistently failed to produce a settlement by which the Greek-Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot communities could rebuild their fragile political relationship. Unofficial interventions have been limited in consistency, and their direct connection to official decisionmaking has been minimal. More recently, unofficial efforts have focused on the grass-roots level, and have engaged hundreds of influential individuals in bicommunal interactions. Nonetheless, the parties remain locked in an adversarial frame that is self-perpetuating and mutually destructive, and that might only be altered through a comprehensive and sustained unofficial track of conflict analysis and resolution that can overcome the trauma of the past and address the basic needs of the parties.

Needs Theory, Social Identity and an Eclectic Model of Conflict

The appeal of Needs Theory is that it offers additional support and a fresh perspective for the appropriateness and utility of the problemsolving approach to conflict resolution.

The Role of National Identity in Conflict Resolution: Experiences from Israeli-Palestinian Problem-Solving Workshops (2001)

My colleagues’ and my work as scholar-practitioners has focused on analysis and resolution of protracted, seemingly intractable conflicts between national, ethnic, or other kinds of identity groups, best exemplified by intercommunal conflicts, such as those in Cyprus, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, Bosnia, and apartheid South Africa.

Towards a Contingency Approach to Third Party Intervention in Regional Conflict: A Cyprus Illustration

management strategies, particularly third party approaches. Effective interventions need to acknowledge and address the numerous issues and demands which fuel the conflict. Thus, the different constituencies involved, their demands and interests, the belief systems challenged, the perceptions held, the history of the relationships, and the fundamental needs to be met must be dealt with if a conflict is to be resolved.1 With such a large number of elements, it seems unreasonable to expect that a single intervention strategy could deal fully with all of them. It seems more useful to envision intervention in regional conflicts as a co-ordinated series of concurrent and consecutive strategies directed towards the long-term goal of resolving the conflict. A look at the history of some recent conflicts indicates that third

Prenegotiation Problem-Solving Discussions: Enhancing the Potential for Successful Negotiation

The world is beset by a host of severe and protracted communal and international conflicts that appear intractable. Traditional approaches to conflict management have proven ineffective, and the parties pursue with intransigence their strategy of threat, intimidation, and violence in attempts to attain their goals. Negotiation, mediation, or arbitration are difficult to implement or fail when attempted. There appears to be a gap in both the thinking of conflict theorists and the practice of diplomatic practitioners with regard to the question of how to facilitate movement towards negotiation which is meaningful and ultimately successful. More specifically, there is a lack of knowledge and expertise regarding the process of prenegotiation by which hostile parties move from stalemate to negotiation. Effective negotiation is difficult, if not impossible, in the poor relationship which is typical of a protracted conflict. Mistrust, selective and distorted perceptions, negative attitudes or images, poor communication, and a competitive win-lose orientation that attempts to force or extract capitulation from the adversary all undermine negotiations in such circumstances. The negotiators are usually under pressure to maintain and operate from the views held by the constituencies to which they are responsible. Thus positive changes in the perceived or actual

The Comparative Utility of Third Party Consultation and Mediation Within a Complex Simulation of Intergroup Conflict

Third party interventions designed to de-escalate intergroup conflict can be differentiated by their underlying assumptions regarding conflict. Process-oriented approaches such as third-party consultation try to de-escalate conflict by taking a subjective emphasis and focusing on the basic relationship between parties, their attitudes, and their perceptions. Traditional third-party interventions, particularly mediation, try to de-escalate conflict by focusing more on the substantive issues in dispute. This study examines how mediation and consultation operate differently within an intergroup conflict simulation. The Intergroup Conflict Simlatllion (Grant, Fisher, Hall, & Keashly, 1990) creates a moderately intense resource and value conflict which involves two equal power groups negotiating for points in a dispute over land divisions. A consultation or a mediation intervention was introduced midway through intergroup negotiations. The results showed that the two interventions did not have a differential impact on settlement of land divisions. Consultation and mediation groups achieved similar point outcomes and were equally committed to and satisfied with the settlement. In contrast, the consultation intervention changed the relationship between the groups. In particular, the groups expressed more positive attitudes and perceptions about the other group and perceived the intergroup relationship as more positive and collaborative after intervention. The implications of these results for third party intervention in intergroup conflict are discussed.