Ronald J. Morris

Dimensions of the Mysticism Scale: Confirming the Three‐Factor Structure in the United States and Iran

In a mostly Christian American sample (N = 1,379), confirmatory factor analysis of Hoods (1975) Mysticism Scale verified the existence of Staces (1960) introvertive and extrovertive dimensions of mystical phenomenology along with a separate interpretation factor: A second study confirmed the presence of these three factors in not only another group of Americans (N = 188), but also in a sample of Iranian Muslims (N = 185). Relationships of the introvertive and extrovertive factors with the interpretation factor were essentially identical across these two cultures, but the Americans displayed a stronger association between the two phenomenology factors. In both h samples, the interpretation factor correlated positively with an intrinsic and negatively with an extrinsic religious orientation, and the introvertive factor predicted psychological dysfunction. Associations of the interpretation factor with relative mental health appeared only in the Iranians. These data offered general support for Staces phenomenology of mysticism, although the ineffability he linked with interpretation proved to be as much or even more a feature of the introvertive experience, as hypothesized by Hood.

Narcissism, empathy and social desirability

Abstract Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) factors were correlated with empathy and social desirability to clarify the unexpected findings of a previous investigation. Statistical controls for the complex nature of the NPI revealed the Exploitativeness/Entitlement (EE) dimention to predict less emotional and cognitive empathy, more interpersonal distress, less social responsibility and lower social desirability scores. In contrast, Leadership/Authority was associated with less interpersonal distress, as was the Superiority/Arrogance factor, and also greater social responsibility. EE therefore may operationalize a maladaptive trait characterized by a socially undesirable and irresponsible interpersonal insensitivity. Other NPI dimensions may record more adaptive self-functioning.

Muslim-Christian Religious Orientation Scales: Distinctions, Correlations, and Cross-Cultural Analysis in Iran and the United States

Allport and Ross (1967) Religious Orientation Scales were administered along with nine new Muslim-Christian Religious Orientation Scales (MCROS) to students in Iran and the United States. Religious extrinsicness was associated with self-reported symptoms of psychological disturbance; with the Iranians, intrinsicness predicted adjustment. Most relations among the religious variables were positive with the two samples displaying similar, though not identical, patterns of correlations. Factor analysis of all religious scales in each sample separately yielded two components suggesting Allports differentiation between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. In both samples, partial correlations and multiple regressions were used to remove variance associated with the Allport and Ross scales, and at least some evidence testified to the incremental validity of each MCROS measure in predicting psychological symptoms and the other MCROS variables. Most important, this first systematic, empirical study of the psychology of religion in Iran confirmed the relevance of Allports thought for understanding Muslim religion and established an empirical foundation for further explorations of the MCROS.

Further contrasts between self-reflectiveness and internal state awareness factors of private self-consciousness

Although widely used as a unitary measure of self-focused attention, the Private Self-Consciousness subscale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) contains two factors. In the present study, this subscale and its self-reflectiveness (SR) factor predicted greater shame, guilt, other-directedness, and social anxiety; but the internal state awareness (ISA) factor displayed relationships that were in the opposite direction. Contrasts between SR and ISA often became more obvious in partial correlations, when one factor was examined while controlling for the other. In relationships with personal and social identity, SR appeared to reflect public as much as private self-consciousness. These data support recent suggestions that it may be necessary to construct more adequate measures of private self-consciousness.

Sin and Self-Functioning, Part 1: Grace, Guilt and Self-Consciousness

An intrinsic religious orientation and beliefs relating to grace tended to predict an Internal State of Awareness, Style Consciousness, and less depression. These outcomes supported the hypothesis that orthodox conceptualizations of sin can promote an adaptive sensitivity to the self and to the self in relation to others; although in some samples these effects may be accompanied by the liability of less assertiveness. Obtained data also demonstrated that an interrelatedness between beliefs dealing with grace and with guilt can create complexities in understanding the influences of sin on self-functioning.

Sin and Self-Functioning, Part 2: Grace, Guilt and Psychological Adjustment

Grace and an intrinsic religious orientation were generally consistent with healthy psychological characteristics as revealed in relationships with self-consciousness, depression, hopelessness and/or self-efficacy. Extrinsicness and orthodox beliefs dealing with guilt tended to predict maladjustment. Several findings suggested that grace can obviate the negative effects of guilt while mediating the positive consequences of intrinsicness, and these data therefore reconfirmed the complex and interrelated influences of sin-related beliefs on self-functioning.

Religiosity, Sin and Self-Esteem

The empirical literature remains largely unsuccessful in clearly defining the functioning of the self within religious persons; and at the same time, a controversy exists within the religious community over how to integrate biblical beliefs about sin with psychological notions associating positive self-regard with mental health. The present study suggests that the wider social controversy is useful in clarifying the empirical problem and that more specifically the languages of sin and of self-esteem are at least partially incompatible. The results indicated that operationalization of religiosity was generally important in defining the nature of religiosity relationships with self-esteem; and more particularly, it was found that a sensitivity to the humanistic language of self-measures and to the guilt dimensions of orthodox views was in fact useful in demonstrating positive associations between self-esteem and a number of religiosity measures including those relating to sin.

FURTHER FACTOR ANALYSIS OF HOOD'S MYSTICISM SCALE

An adequate sample of 740 students was employed to establish a three-factor structure for Hoods Mysticism Scale compatible with the conceptual work of Stace from which scale items were initially derived.

Sin, Depression, and Narcissism

Measures of religious orientation, sin-related beliefs, depression, and narcissism were obtained for samples of students enrolled at a public state university (N= 198) and at a private Pentecostal college (N= 116). Intrinsic religiosity and associated sin-related beliefs were correlated with less depression and less narcissistic exploitiveness while extrinsic religiosity appeared as a largely maladjusted orientation. Partial correlational evidence yielded at least some support for the idea that sin-related beliefs exert specific positive influences beyond their association with an intrinsic religious commitment. In general, these data help clarify recent arguments concerning the effects of orthodox religious beliefs on self functioning; and more particularly, they present interpretative problems for any claims that sin-related beliefs necessarily promote an unhealthy development of the self

Irrational beliefs, individualism-collectivism, and adjustment

Abstract Ellis (1994) has argued that a failure to actualize both personal individualism and social collectivism is irrational and leads to maladjustment. In a test of these assumptions, two measures of irrational beliefs—the Survey of Personal Beliefs (SPB) and the Belief Scale—were correlated with indices of individualism, collectivism, and psychosocial adjustment. Both individualism and collectivism had positive and negative mental health implications. Values associated with each covaried directly. The validity of several SPB subscales was challenged, but data for especially the Belief Scale confirmed that individualistic and socially oriented forms of actualization can be part of a balanced functioning of personality.