Ronald Kühne

Solid-state NMR and SAXS studies provide a structural basis for the activation of αB-crystallin oligomers

The small heat shock protein αB-crystallin (αB) contributes to cellular protection against stress. For decades, high-resolution structural studies on oligomeric αB have been confounded by its polydisperse nature. Here, we present a structural basis of oligomer assembly and activation of the chaperone using solid-state NMR and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The basic building block is a curved dimer, with an angle of ∼121° between the planes of the β-sandwich formed by α-crystallin domains. The highly conserved IXI motif covers a substrate binding site at pH 7.5. We observe a pH-dependent modulation of the interaction of the IXI motif with β4 and β8, consistent with a pH-dependent regulation of the chaperone function. N-terminal region residues Ser59-Trp60-Phe61 are involved in intermolecular interaction with β3. Intermolecular restraints from NMR and volumetric restraints from SAXS were combined to calculate a model of a 24-subunit αB oligomer with tetrahedral symmetry.

Dual epitope recognition by the VASP EVH1 domain modulates polyproline ligand specificity and binding affinity

The Ena‐VASP family of proteins act as molecular adaptors linking the cytoskeletal system to signal transduction pathways. Their N‐terminal EVH1 domains use groups of exposed aromatic residues to specifically recognize ‘FPPPP’ motifs found in the mammalian zyx in and vinculin proteins, and ActA protein of the intracellular bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. Here, evidence is provided that the affinities of these EVH1–peptide interactions are strongly dependent on the recognition of residues flanking the core FPPPP motifs. Determination of the VASP EVH1 domain solution structure, together with peptide library screening, measurement of individual Kds by fluorescence titration, and NMR chemical shift mapping, revealed a second affinity‐determining epitope present in all four ActA EVH1‐binding motifs. The epitope was shown to interact with a complementary hydrophobic site on the EVH1 surface and to increase strongly the affinity of ActA for EVH1 domains. We propose that this epitope, which is absent in the sequences of the native EVH1‐interaction partners zyxin and vinculin, may provide the pathogen with an advantage when competing for the recruitment of the host VASP and Mena proteins in the infected cell.

Dynamic interaction of CD2 with the GYF and the SH3 domain of compartmentalized effector molecules

Intracellular protein interaction domains are essential for eukaryotic signaling. In T cells, the CD2BP2 adaptor binds two membrane‐proximal proline‐rich motifs in the CD2 cytoplasmic tail via its GYF domain, thereby regulating interleukin‐2 production. Here we present the structure of the GYF domain in complex with a CD2 tail peptide. Unlike SH3 domains, which use two surface pockets to accommodate proline residues of ligands, the GYF domain employs phylogenetically conserved hydrophobic residues to create a single interaction surface. NMR analysis shows that the Fyn but not the Lck tyrosine kinase SH3 domain competes with CD2BP2 GYF‐domain binding to the same CD2 proline‐rich sequence in vitro. To test the in vivo significance of this competition, we used co‐immunoprecipitation experiments and found that CD2BP2 is the ligand of the membrane‐proximal proline‐rich tandem repeat of CD2 in detergent‐ soluble membrane compartments, but is replaced by Fyn SH3 after CD2 is translocated into lipid rafts upon CD2 ectodomain clustering. This unveils the mechanism of a switch of CD2 function due to an extracellular mitogenic signal.

Mutational analyses of c-FLIPR, the only murine short FLIP isoform, reveal requirements for DISC recruitment.

Cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein (c-FLIP) proteins are known as potent inhibitors of death receptor-mediated apoptosis by interfering with caspase-8 activation at the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). Among the three human isoforms, c-FLIPlong, c-FLIPshort and c-FLIPR, the latter isoform is poorly characterized. We report here the characterization of murine c-FLIPR and show that it is the only short c-FLIP isoform expressed in mice. By generating several mutants, we demonstrate that both death effector domains (DEDs) are required for DISC binding and the antiapoptotic function of c-FLIPR. Surprisingly, the C-terminal tail is important for both protein stability and DISC recruitment. Three-dimensional modeling of c-FLIPR revealed a substantial similarity of the overall structures and potential interaction motifs with the viral FLIP MC159. We found, however, that c-FLIPR uses different structural motifs for its DISC recruitment. Whereas MC159 interferes with interaction and self-oligomerization of the DISC component FADD by its extensive hydrophilic surface, a narrow hydrophobic patch of c-FLIPR on the surface of DED2 is crucial for DISC association. Thus, despite the presence of similar tandem DEDs, viral and cellular FLIPs inhibit apoptosis by remarkably divergent mechanisms.

Design of chemical libraries with potentially bioactive molecules applying a maximum common substructure concept

Success in small molecule screening relies heavily on the preselection of compounds. Here, we present a strategy for the enrichment of chemical libraries with potentially bioactive compounds integrating the collected knowledge of medicinal chemistry. Employing a genetic algorithm, substructures typically occurring in bioactive compounds were identified using the World Drug Index. Availability of compounds containing the selected substructures was analysed in vendor libraries, and the substructure-specific sublibraries were assembled. Compounds containing reactive, undesired functional groups were omitted. Using a diversity filter for both physico-chemical properties and the substructure composition, the compounds of all the sublibraries were ranked. Accordingly, a screening collection of 16,671 compounds was selected. Diversity and chemical space coverage of the collection indicate that it is highly diverse and well-placed in the chemical space spanned by bioactive compounds. Furthermore, secondary assay-validated hits presented in this study show the practical relevance of our library design strategy.

Small Organic Compounds Enhance Antigen Loading of Class II Major Histocompatibility Complex Proteins by Targeting the Polymorphic P1 Pocket

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules are a key element of the cellular immune response. Encoded by the MHC they are a family of highly polymorphic peptide receptors presenting peptide antigens for the surveillance by T cells. We have shown that certain organic compounds can amplify immune responses by catalyzing the peptide loading of human class II MHC molecules HLA-DR. Here we show now that they achieve this by interacting with a defined binding site of the HLA-DR peptide receptor. Screening of a compound library revealed a set of adamantane derivatives that strongly accelerated the peptide loading rate. The effect was evident only for an allelic subset and strictly correlated with the presence of glycine at the dimorphic position β86 of the HLA-DR molecule. The residue forms the floor of the conserved pocket P1, located in the peptide binding site of MHC molecule. Apparently, transient occupation of this pocket by the organic compound stabilizes the peptide-receptive conformation permitting rapid antigen loading. This interaction appeared restricted to the larger Glyβ86 pocket and allowed striking enhancements of T cell responses for antigens presented by these “adamantyl-susceptible” MHC molecules. As catalysts of antigen loading, compounds targeting P1 may be useful molecular tools to amplify the immune response. The observation, however, that the ligand repertoire can be affected through polymorphic sites form the outside may also imply that environmental factors could induce allergic or autoimmune reactions in an allele-selective manner.

The structures of the active center in dark-adapted bacteriorhodopsin by solution-state NMR spectroscopy

The two forms of bacteriorhodopsin present in the dark-adapted state, containing either all-trans or 13-cis,15-syn retinal, were examined by using solution state NMR, and their structures were determined. Comparison of the all-trans and the 13-cis,15-syn forms shows a shift in position of about 0.25 Å within the pocket of the protein. Comparing this to the 13-cis,15-anti chromophore of the catalytic cycle M-intermediate structure, the 13-cis,15-syn form demonstrates a less pronounced up-tilt of the retinal C12—C14 region, while leaving W182 and T178 essentially unchanged. The N—H dipole of the Schiff base orients toward the extracellular side in both forms, however, it reorients toward the intracellular side in the 13-cis,15-anti configuration to form the catalytic M-intermediate. Thus, the change of the N—H dipole is considered primarily responsible for energy storage, conformation changes of the protein, and the deprotonation of the Schiff base. The structural similarity of the all-trans and 13-cis,15-syn forms is taken as strong evidence for the ion dipole dragging model by which proton (hydroxide ion) translocation follows the change of the dipole.

Metal-Free, Regioselective Triazole Ligations that Deliver Locked cis Peptide Mimetics†

Metal-free triazole turns: 1,5-Disubstituted peptidyl triazoles are obtained regioselectively from the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of peptidyl phosphoranes and azides. Peptide turns are thus formed that contain a conformationally locked cis peptide bond. Being regioselective and free of heavy metals, this reaction may find broad application in chemical biology and medicinal chemistry.

Anchor Side Chains of Short Peptide Fragments Trigger Ligand-Exchange of Class II MHC Molecules

Class II MHC molecules display peptides on the cell surface for the surveillance by CD4+ T cells. To ensure that these ligands accurately reflect the content of the intracellular MHC loading compartment, a complex processing pathway has evolved that delivers only stable peptide/MHC complexes to the surface. As additional safeguard, MHC molecules quickly acquire a ‘non-receptive’ state once they have lost their ligand. Here we show now that amino acid side chains of short peptides can bypass these safety mechanisms by triggering the reversible ligand-exchange. The catalytic activity of dipeptides such as Tyr-Arg was stereo-specific and could be enhanced by modifications addressing the conserved H-bond network near the P1 pocket of the MHC molecule. It affected both antigen-loading and ligand-release and strictly correlated with reported anchor preferences of P1, the specific target site for the catalytic side chain of the dipeptide. The effect was evident also in CD4+ T cell assays, where the allele-selective influence of the dipeptides translated into increased sensitivities of the antigen-specific immune response. Molecular dynamic calculations support the hypothesis that occupation of P1 prevents the ‘closure’ of the empty peptide binding site into the non-receptive state. During antigen-processing and -presentation P1 may therefore function as important “sensor” for peptide-load. While it regulates maturation and trafficking of the complex, on the cell surface, short protein fragments present in blood or lymph could utilize this mechanism to alter the ligand composition on antigen presenting cells in a catalytic way.

The NMR structure of the 47-kDa dimeric enzyme 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase and ligand binding studies reveal the location of the active site

Recent developments in NMR have extended the size range of proteins amenable to structural and functional characterization to include many larger proteins involved in important cellular processes. By applying a combination of residue-specific isotope labeling and protein deuteration strategies tailored to yield specific information, we were able to determine the solution structure and study structure–activity relationships of 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase, a 47-kDa enzyme from the Escherichia coli riboflavin biosynthesis pathway and an attractive target for novel antibiotics. Our investigations of the enzymes ligand binding by NMR and site-directed mutagenesis yields a conclusive picture of the location and identity of residues directly involved in substrate binding and catalysis. Our studies illustrate the power of state-of-the-art NMR techniques for the structural characterization and investigation of ligand binding in protein complexes approaching the 50-kDa range in solution.