Ronald L. Akers

Social learning and deviant behavior: A specific test of a general theory

In the last decade we have seen a dramatic shift away from sociological explanations of deviant behavior toward developing theoretical perspectives on societal reactions to and definitions of deviance and crime. Labeling and conflict formulations have become major foci of sociological theorizing as well as the sounding boards for most of the controversy and discourse in the field of deviance. This shift in focus was deemed necessary to redress the previous imbalance of attention to the deviant behavior itself (Akers, 1968), and it clearly has had that effect. Unfortunately, it also has led to the neglect of theoretical developments in the etiology of deviant behavior. Neither labeling nor conflict perspectives has offered a general explanation of deviant behavior, although some conflict theorists have offered preliminary but incomplete efforts in that direction (Taylor, et al., 1973; Spitzer, 1975). There have been other efforts directed toward explaining deviant behavior, but these have been fairly narrow in scope; they have usually been limited either to a specific type of deviant behavior or to a restricted range of substantive variables. For example, a good deal of attention has been paid to the modern resurrection of deterrence theory (Gibbs, 1975; 1977; Waldo and Chiricos, 1972, Tittle, 1975; Silberman, 1976; Erickson et al., 1977; Meier and Johnson, 1977; Geerken and Gove, 1977). The scope of deterrence theory has been changed little, however, since its statement by the classical criminologists two centuries ago and is limited to the actual or perceived certainty, severity, and celerity of formally administered legal sanctions for violations of the criminal law. Another example is Travis Hirschi’ s (1969) control (social bonding) theory which is a more general explanation of deviance than deterrence theory, but which is, in turn, primarily restricted to informal social control which comes from individuals being bonded to groups and institutions.

Self-control as a general theory of crime

ConclusionLow self-control theory will have an impact on criminological theory. G&Hs arguments are too forcefully and intelligently made to be ignored. I anticipate that the theory will inspire a great deal of attention and research (and much of it may be in an attempt to prove them wrong). The value of self-control theory would be advanced even more, however, if G&H would grapple with the tautology problem, attend to theoretical linkages with prior control theory, and ease off a bit from the oppositional strategy in comparing their theory with other theories.

Drug Use and Ethnicity in Early Adolescence

Different Worlds: Drug Use and Ethnicity in Early Adolescence. Context and Design of the Study G.J. Warheit. Substance Use and Other Social Deviance G.J. Warheit, A.G. Gil. Pathways to Drug Use W.A. Vega, et al. Are Girls Different? A Developmental Perspective on Gender Differences in Risk Factors for Substance Use Among Adolescents E.L. Khoury. Cultural Adjustment and Hispanic Adolescent Drug Use W.A. Vega, A.G. Gil. Developmental Patterns of African American Adolescent Drug Use F. Biafora, R.S. Zimmerman. Prevention Implications and Conclusions. Appendix. Index.

Beyond Hellfire: An Exploration of the Variable Effects of Religiosity on Adolescent Marijuana and Alcohol Use:

Since its original formulation in 1969 by Hirschi and Stark, the Hellfire hypothesis has undergone several significant revisions. This hypothesis asserts that involvement in deviant behavior is inversely related to religiosity. Early revisions of this hypothesis stressed the importance of religiosity on violations of ascetic norms over violations of secular norms. More recent revisions have stressed the interactive effects of religiosity and contextual factors such as denominational norms and aggregate religiosity. Each of these respecifications of the original Hellfire hypothesis is evaluated here with survey data on self-reported alcohol and marijuana use from a sample of 3,065 male and female adolescents in grades seven through twelve in three midwestern states. Results suggest that most of these revisions are only marginally more useful than the original formulation for explaining adolescent alcohol consumption and are largely irrelevant with regard to marijuana use. We find that the more parsimonious proposition of a direct religiosity effect alone does about as well in explaining alcohol and marijuana use among adolescents as the more complex contextual propositions.

A Longitudinal Test of Social Learning Theory: Adolescent Smoking:

A general social learning theory of deviance is applied to adolescent smoking as a form of sustance use and tested with data from a 5-year longitudinal study of a panel (N=454) of respondents in grades 7 through 12 in an Iowa community. The major components of the process specified in the theory are differential association, differential reinforcement, definitions (attitudes), and modeling. The process is one in which the operation of these variables produces abstinence or smoking, but with some reciprocal effects of smoking behavior on the social learning variables. Previous research on various kinds of deviance and substance use has been supportive of the theory. The findings in this study from LISREL models of the overall social learning process and each of the component of association, reinforcement, and definitions are also supportive.

Adolescent marijuana use: A test of three theories of deviant behavior

Social learning theory, social bonding theory, and anomie (strain) theory are tested with survey data on adolescent drug use. Social learning theory is strongly supported, social bonding bonding theory receives some support, and anomie receives little support. Types of theoretical integration are reviewed, and the conceptual overlap between social learning and bonding theories is shown.

Social Learning Theory and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study

We specify causal models of the learning process implied in Akers’ (1977) social learning theory for the initiation and maintenance of adolescent cigarette smoking. Path analyses of data from a three-year panel study of junior and senior high school students indicate that the theory is more effective in accounting for maintenance (or cessation) of cigarette smoking than in explaining initiation to cigarette smoking. Most important, our measures of social and nonsocial reinforcement mediate the effect of differential association on smoking as social learning theory predicts.

age, social learning, and social bonding in adolescent substance use

We propose that social learning and social bonding theories are capable of accounting for the well-known relationship of crime and delinquency to age. Models incorporating age and variables derived from these two theories are tested with data on adolescent substance use among a large sample of Midwest adolescents in Grades 7 through 12. Older adolescents consume more marijuana than younger adolescents, and the age-use curve is matched by the relationship between age and social learning variables. Differences in use by age are also correlated with differences in strength of social bonds by age, but to a lesser extent. The findings support the hypothesis that age variations in marijuana use are mediated by age-related variations in social learning; there is also support, although somewhat weaker, for the similar hypothesis that social bonding variables mediate the age-marijuana use relationship during adolescence.

Norm Qualities and Adolescent Drinking and Drug Behavior: The Effects of Norm Quality and Reference Group on Using and Abusing Alcohol and Marijuana

The effect of normative climate on a persons alcohol and marijuana attitudes and use patterns is investigated. Specifically the norm qualities of significant reference group sources for 7th and 12th grade adolescents (N=3065) are examined to determine their relative impact on both frequency of use and level of abuse of alcohol and marijuana. We found that the norm qualities of all the reference groups are related to use patterns and attitudes in the predicted direction and that norm qualities of friends (compared to parents and religion) is clearly the most predictive variable. However, hypotheses of increased substance abuse under the impact of ascriptive and proscriptive norm qualities are not supported.

“It's a white thing”: An exploration of beliefs about suicide in the African‐American community

Although there has been an increase in black suicides in the past decades the white suicide rate is still nearly double the black suicide rate for men and women. The question asked is, Why is there relatively little black suicide? One persuasive answer proposed in the literature is that major social institutions, particularly religion and family, in the African‐American community provide amelioration or buffering of social forces that would otherwise promote suicide. We report on a qualitative investigation designed to identify the content of beliefs and perceptions of suicide that may act as a buffer against suicide in the African‐American community. From interviews with black pastors in a southern community we identify an intermingling of religious condemnatory beliefs and secular attitudes about suicide that view suicide as unthinkable sin and define it as a “white thing” alien to the black culture.