Ronald L. Mullis

Ego Identity Status, Identity Style, and Personal Expressiveness An Empirical Investigation of Three Convergent Constructs

This study represents an investigation of relationships among three sets of identity constructs, including the ego identity statuses, the identity styles, and personal expressiveness. The Ego Identity Process Questionnaire was used to assess identity status as conceptualized by J. E. Marcia. The Identity Style Inventory was used to assess identity style as conceptualized by M. D. Berzonsky. The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire was used to measure feelings of personal expressiveness as described by A. S. Waterman. Data were collected from two samples of students at two universities. The measures were considered in pairs to examine the convergence among the constructs. Results revealed that these three measures, and perhaps the underlying constructs, are convergent. Associations between measures are discussed in relation to previous research and theory.

Age, Gender, and Self-Esteem Differences in Adolescent Coping Styles

ADOLESCENT COPING involves the cognitive and behavioral means used to deal with stress, both emotionally and instrumentally, during early and later adolescence (Compas, 1987; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). According to Spivak and Shure (1983, the problem-solving skills of adolescents change and improve with age and as a function of cognitive development and social experience. Developmental differences in coping notwithstanding, some researchers have argued that adolescents’ gender and self-esteem may also affect their coping styles. Stark, Spirito, Williams, and Guevremont (1989) found that male adolescents used more wishful thinking in their coping strategies than did female adolescents, who tended to rely more on social supports as a coping strategy. Moos ( 1990) reported that adolescents with low self-esteem relied on emotion-based strategies (e.g., ventilation of feelings) in coping, whereas adolescents with high self-esteem relied on strategies directed at solving problems. Assessing coping among adolescents with a standardized instrument and examining the relations

Center-Based Care for Young Children: Examining Predictors of Quality

Abstract The authors collected information from caregivers, trained observers, and parents to investigate quality elements in child-care programs designed for young children in center-based settings. Participants were 75 parents of children aged 15 to 36 months and their caregivers from 13 child-care centers in a southeastern state. Observers collected indicators of program quality and process and structural quality indicators, including adult-child ratio, group size, use of planned activities, use of child-designated space, housekeeping activities, and caregiver-child interactions. Participants responded to questions regarding their child-rearing beliefs, social support networks, perceived stress levels, and demographic characteristics. The best predictors of higher quality care and sensitive caregiver-child interaction in centers were specialized caregiver training, higher adult-child ratios, use of planned activities, and less perceived stress by caregivers. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Predictors of academic performance during early adolescence: A contextual view:

Utilising the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS: 88), this study examined some of the frequently used indicators of social capital and resource capital as predictors of academic performance of 24,599 middle school adolescents (12,111 males and 12,244 females) ranging in age from 13–16 years. Sixty-eight per cent were White, 12.2% were Black, and 12.9% were Hispanic. The participants were drawn from a stratified national sample of over 1000 public and private schools in the United States. Data from NELS: 88 were analysed using indicators of social capital and resource capital. Preliminarily modelling indicated the need to separate social capital into two components: parental networks and student networks. Resource capital, including parent education, parent income, and educational items in the home, was most predictive of academic performance. In addition, student reported misbehaviour (behaviour) in school was included as a mediating variable. The findings indicated that both indicators of social capital were not strong contributors to academic performance among adolescents. Resource capital indicators were found to be stronger contributors to academic performance. The context variable (hypothesised as a mediator variable) of student misbehaviour in school was found to be the best predictor of academic performance. The results are discussed in relation to social capital theory and future research of viable predictors of academic performance among adolescents.

Racial Differences in Adolescent Coping and Self-Esteem

Abstract Racial differences in coping strategies and self-esteem were examined for 361 male and female adolescents in Grades 7–12. Coping strategies were assessed with the Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem Experiences (J. M. Patterson & H. I. McCubbin, 1986). Self-esteem was assessed by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (S. Coopersmith, 1987). Multivariate analysis revealed racial differences in adolescent coping strategies of ventilating feelings, seeking diversions, developing self-reliance, avoiding problems, seeking spiritual support, investing in close friends, engaging in demanding activities, solving family problems, and relaxing. In particular, African American adolescents reported using diversions, self-reliance, spiritual support, close friends, demanding activities, family problems, and relaxation more frequently than Caucasian adolescents did. Implications for professionals and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Differences in Empathy Between Offender and Nonoffender Youth

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in empathy between offender and nonoffender youth. Seventy-six male and 33 female juvenile offenders between the ages of 12 and 18 years and 33 male and 33 female nonoffenders between the ages of 15 and 19 years comprised the samples for this study. Measures of empathy, altruism, and social support were administered to all participants and then the participants were analyzed for status group differences. Only 1 dimension of empathy, emotional tone, was found to be significantly different based on group status. Gender differences were found for both status groups for another dimension of empathy, personal distress. Among offender and nonoffender youth, females yielded higher scores in personal distress than did males. Emotional tone and family structure were found to be the most predictive variables of offender status. Findings were discussed based on previous research and implications for interventions were addressed.

Relations between Identity Formation and Family Characteristics among Young Adults

Relations between identity formation and family characteristics among young adults were examined. The Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales II and the Ego Process Questionnaire were administered to 57 male and 94 female college students between the ages of 18 and 25. There were 78 Caucasian and 73 African American youth. Significant relations were found between identity exploration and commitment, and family cohesion and adaptability. In addition, moderating effects of race and gender also were found for relations between identity formation and family variables for this sample of young adults. African American participants were found to explore interpersonally more often than Caucasians when family cohesion and family adaptability were low. Family cohesion was positively related to interpersonal and ideological identity commitments for males but only for interpersonal commitment for females. Implications for future research are addressed.

Variations in Family Structure and School-Age Children's Academic Achievement: A Social and Resource Capital Perspective

Data from the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (ECLS–K) involving more than 300 children who continuously resided in different variations of families from kindergarten through fifth grade were used to test the usefulness of social capital theory for understanding the academic improvement of school-age children over two points in time. Social capital theory was found to be a useful framework for explaining academic achievement for single-parent, stepparent, and biological family forms. Analyses revealed that childrens change scores in reading and math differed across the three variations in family type. Children in single-parent households scored significantly lower than children from both biological and married stepparent households.

Parental relationships, autonomy, and identity processes of high school students.

ABSTRACT To examine the interrelations among parental relationships, emotional autonomy, and identity statuses, the authors asked 234 (105 male, 129 female) high school students to complete the Parental Bonding Scale (G. Parker, H. Tupling, & L. B. Brown, 1979), Emotional Autonomy Scale (L. D. Steinberg & S. B. Silverberg, 1986), and Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Scale-II (L. D. Bennion & G. R. Adams, 1986). There continues to be controversy about whether adolescents’ identity formation is related to their emotional separation from their parents. According to Eriksonian and neo-Eriksonian theory (J. E. Marcia, 1980, 1984), adolescents who are successful in resolving their identity issues are better able to emotionally individuate from their parents. That is, adolescents have fewer conflicts with parents as they become more independent of them. Results of the present study indicate that adolescent perceptions of mothers caring behavior, but not fathers caring behavior, predicted higher foreclosure identity status scores among adolescents. In addition, 2 dimensions of emotional autonomy (i.e., perceiving parents as people and parental deidealization) best predicted the adolescent identity statuses of moratorium and foreclosure. Results also indicate that future research may need to establish a better theoretical conceptualization of the constructs of interest in this study and better measures of emotional autonomy among adolescents.

Gender-Role Orientation of Adolescent Females Effects on Self-Esteem and Locus of Control

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of gender-role orientation on self-esteem and locus of control of female adolescents. A total of 87 junior high school females and 48 senior high school females completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the Texas Social Behavior Inventory, and the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children. Gender-role orientation was related to self-esteem but not to locus of control. Adolescents classified as androgynous or masculine had higher self-esteem than adolescents classified as feminine and undifferentiated. Differentialpatterns of gender-role orientation effects were found for junior high school females when compared to senior high school females. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.