Rosa M. Limiñana-Gras

Health and Gender in Female-Dominated Occupations: The Case of Male Nurses

The goal of this work is to examine the differential impact that carrying out nursing tasks may have on the health of male nurses who perform their work in female-dominated occupation, and the modulating effect of their conformity to male gender norms. Our study includes 98 male nurses and 98 female nurses, from the University Hospital of Getafe, (in Madrid). The participants completed sociodemographic questionnaire, physical health and Self-perceived Job Satisfaction questionnaires, the GHQ-12, and the Conformity to Gender Norms Questionnaires (CMNI). In general, the male nurses enjoy better health than the female nurses in the variables analyzed. With regard to conformity to masculine gender norms, they show lower conformity to the traditional masculine gender norms than men from the general population. However, the relation of the studied health variables with conformity to masculine gender norms shows classic pattern of habitual health in the men.

The GHQ-12 for the Assessment of Psychological Distress of Family Caregivers

This study examined the utility of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) to assess the psychological distress of family caregivers. To accomplish this goal, a sample of 172 caregivers, 25 men and 147 women, aged 56.6 (SD = 13.7) completed self-report questionnaires and provided data on demographic factors. Univariate and bivariate models adjust adequately, although the two-factor model (anxiety/depression and social dysfunction) presented a better fit. Relative caregivers scored higher in psychological distress (anxiety and depression levels) on the GHQ-12 than did the normal population. In conclusion, the GHQ-12 is a sensitive instrument to detect the presence of anxiety and depression in relative caregivers, and the external validity of the instrument is generally adequate. The GHQ-12 seems particularly appropriate for research and clinical and health intervention in caregivers. Implications and limitations of these results are discussed, along with suggestions for future research.

Use of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale in Spanish caregivers.

BACKGROUND The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) is widely used in the assessment of anxiety and depression, but there are scarce data about its psychometric properties in caregivers of older relatives. OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to analyse the factor structure of the HADS to verify its suitability to assess emotional symptomatology in family caregivers of old people, its internal consistency and confirming its relation with the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) and an index of disease and physical complaints. METHODS One hundred and seventy-five family caregivers (25 men and 150 women) aged 32-86, who were taking care of at least one older person in a situation of dependence, were recruited for this study. A descriptive, comparative, correlational design was employed. The scientific adequacy of the questionnaire and its structure were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis. The scores obtained in the GHQ and in an index of disease and physical complaints were used as external criteria to assess the adequacy of the HADS for caregivers. RESULTS Higher levels of anxiety and depression than in the normal population were obtained. The reliability/internal validity of the questionnaire was adequate. A bifactor model, with one subscale for anxiety and one for depression, provides the best fit to the data. The subscales were related to GHQ-12 and index of diseases/physical complaints. CONCLUSIONS The HADS was shown to be useful to assess the presence of anxiety and depression in family caregivers, and the original two-dimensional model is the most adequate.

Gender, Health, and Initiation of Breastfeeding

The aim of this study was to explore the associations of health, gender, and motherhood with the decisions about breastfeeding. The sample consisted of 265 pregnant women (mean age: 32.34, SD: 4.01 years) who were recruited in healthcare centers and hospitals in southeast Spain between 2010 and 2011. Mental health was measured by the 12-Item General Health Questionnaire and gender by the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory. Women in our sample showed a higher conformity to gender norms than women surveyed in the adaptation of the inventory to the Spanish population (t = 11.25, p < 0.001, effect estimate (Cohen’s d) = 0.59). After adjustment for covariates, women who exclusively breastfed did not differ significantly in their conformity to gender norms from those who used partial breastfeeding or bottle feeding. Although good, our expectant mothers had worse mental health than the women aged 15–44 years in the Spanish National Health Survey (t = 2.96, p < 0.001, d = 0.26). Those who partially breastfed had significantly better mental health values. Gender norms were modulators in a model of factors related to initiation of breastfeeding. This study provides information about health and social construction of gender norms.

Health and Gender Perspective in Infertility

Abstract Infertility is a global phenomenon affecting more than 15% of people of childbearing age throughout the world ( WHO, 2010a ), and it represents an important crisis in the life of many people, bearing major consequences on their health. This chapter provides an overview of the most significant concepts in the field of infertility, analyzes the major social and psychological impact of infertility and the impact of the extraordinary scientific and technological advances of recent decades, as well as disclosing how men and women cope with infertility individually or as a couple. Finally, it discusses the role of the psychologist in reproductive psychology, the most relevant psychological aspects of involuntary infertility, and the inclusion of a gender perspective in psychological intervention protocols. The gender perspective, as a theory, methodology, or practice, allows us to question the value attributed by men and women to reproductive events. It enables us to reconstruct the psychological and social processes that led to assigning men and women different rights and responsibilities in infertility. The gender approach in infertility ultimately allows us make visible the multiple ways in which gender constructions determine identity and socialization processes, producing and naturalizing inequity that affects the health of infertile women and men.

Clinical efficacy of psychoeducational interventions with family caregivers

ABSTRACT The goal of this study is to investigate the efficacy of psychoeducational interventions geared to reducing psychological distress for caregivers in a sample of 90 family caregivers of elderly dependent (78 women and 12 men). We conducted an analysis of the statistical and clinical significance of the changes observed in psychological health before and after a psychoeducational intervention in two therapeutic modalities: one in a face-to-face group format (n = 69), and another in a distance format (n = 21). Bivariate correlations and regression analysis were performed to analyze the relationship between the predictive variables and the score on mental health changes. The results obtained suggest that the benefits of psychoeducational interventions on caregivers’ distress, regardless of the therapeutic modality, is of clinical importance. Caregiver burden was the best predictor of improvement after psychoeducational interventions, with lower work satisfaction being particularly noticeable.