Rosemary D. F. Bromley

City Centre Regeneration through Residential Development: Contributing to Sustainability:

Following a discussion of recent policies for the city centre in Britain, the paper explores the contribution of residential development to aspects of sustainability, drawing on a range of survey evidence in Bristol and Swansea. The residents are frequent shoppers, helping to sustain the local daytime economy. Sustainability goals are also supported because large proportions of residents walk to city centre attractions, and many also to their places of work, showing reduced reliance on the private car. Support for the expanding nighttime economy reflects the age, gender and social class composition of the resident population, with different attractions receiving different levels of support from different social groups, but with younger adults as the mainstay. Sustainability in the city centre context appears best served by a majority of young adult residents, ameliorated by a sizeable proportion of older adults, and an absence of households with children. Grandiose government sustainability aims of creating the truly balanced community which includes many children, should be modified in this local context.

Alcohol-related crime and disorder across urban space and time: evidence from a British city

Using a Police recording system containing new forms of information on the role of alcohol consumption, this paper focuses on the space and time dimensions of alcohol-related crime and disorder, and situates the patterns in the context of the functions of different urban spaces. Data for Worcester in 1999 show that alcohol is noted as a contributory factor in 8% of recorded crime, but that the recorded role of alcohol is far higher for certain crime types: 48% of all harassment crimes; 36% of violent crime and 16% of criminal damage (other). Most recorded alcohol-related crimes occur in the city centre and at night, while at a more detailed level the main urban spaces are the city centre night-time leisure zones, and the spaces which act as routeways for the night-time revellers. The combined crime and disorder data sets, supported by interview evidence, indicate subsidiary alcohol-related daytime clusters in the shopping area and associated with specific city centre functions. By exploring the patterns, important clues to the immediate contributory factors emerge, but a more comprehensive explanation requires further research. Places, particularly in the night-time leisure zone, where alcohol-related crime is less pronounced, are as important to our understanding as those where crime/disorder is clustered. A detailed knowledge of the variety of spaces and times of alcohol-related crime and disorder is key to the development of appropriate urban design, planning and licensing policies, and can be used to inform a more closely targeted policing strategy.

THE RETAIL REVOLUTION, THE CARLESS SHOPPER AND DISADVANTAGE

The spatial restructuring of retailing in British cities in recent years has been characterized as a retail revolution. Off-centre superstores, retail warehouses, and planned regional shopping centres have been added to the pattern of traditional shopping facilities, which in turn have often experienced decline. The dichotomy between the old and new shopping facilities is increasingly reflected in a marked inequality in the opportunities of consumers, in which those with poor mobility are seen as disadvantaged consumers. Investigation of household shopping behaviour in the Swansea area following the recent development of many new car-orientated facilities, reveals that mobility, and specifically car-ownership, is the principal determinant of major variations in shopping behaviour for groceries and DIY products, and also for more specialized goods on sale at off-centre locations. The attractions of the newer off-centre opportunities dominate the shopping behaviour of the car-owning households. By contrast, the carless shopper appears constrained in behaviour and largely bypassed by the retail revolution. Examination of alternative factors influencing shopping behaviour, such as location of residence, age and socio-economic status serves to confirm the importance of car-ownership. The relationship between carlessness and disadvantage is also considered. Lack of a car is associated with elements of social disadvantage, and it is clear that the shopping trips of the carless shopper focus disproportionately on the traditional and more localized shopping facilities. The extent to which this constitutes consumer disadvantage, however, still awaits a direct and comprehensive investigation. (A)

Identifying micro-spatial and temporal patterns of violent crime and disorder in the British city centre

Using variables recorded by the police on when and where violent crime and disorder occur, the paper emphasizes the value of using a combination of different types of micro-spatial information in identifying patterns of violence. Evidence from Cardiff and Worcester shows primary clusters at night in the pub/club leisure zones; and secondary clusters during the shopping day in major retail streets. Disorder data also reveal subsidiary afternoon clusters near licensed premises, and a late-night confluence flashpoint at a node of pedestrian activity. Police geographical information systems should incorporate precise spatial and temporal variables to enhance our understanding of violent crime, to facilitate targeted policing and to assist in creating safer city centres.

Retail revitalization and small town centres: the contribution of shopping linkages

Abstract Change has been a continuous feature of retailing in Britain since the mid-1960s. New types of shopping facilities have been developed, usually in decentralized locations, while the largest town and city centres have retained their commercial dominance. These changes have had significant negative competitive effects on all types of smaller traditional centres, especially middle-order centres (small towns, district centres and small market towns), where a ‘spiral of decline’ has been widely evident. Many communities face the prospect of losing their commercial and social focuses. Government activity has attempted to contain this problem by constraining retail decentralization and promoting redevelopment in the traditional centres. Limited evidence suggests that the revitalization process is strongly dependent on the scale, quality and location of the food shopping facilities of such centres and the associated ‘spin-off’ shopping linkages. This article aims to provide additional insight into this by investigating the shopping linkages between a closely integrated new shopping precinct, incorporating an edge-of-centre superstore, in the small town centre of Llanelli in South Wales. Redevelopment, which retained a compact structure based upon spatial proximity, was found to encourage high levels of linkage between the component parts of the centre and generated favourable attitudes to the shopping environment. However, the successful spatial integration of the superstore with the centre needed a site that approximated to an in-town/edge-of-centre site rather than to a more peripheral edge-of-centre or out-of-centre site. Clearly, considerable care is required to define edge-of-centre locations for new developments if they are to assist in regenerating a declining centre. This study strongly supports governmental caution on this issue. The advantages of undertaking shopping linkage analyses for the formulation of planning strategies designed to revitalize declining town centres is also demonstrated.

Disaggregating the space - time layers of city-centre activities and their users

Adopting a focus on both time and space, the authors aim to unpack the complexity of uses and users in the city centre. Evidence from Swansea reveals a stark twofold temporal division between a frequently visited daytime city and a much less frequently visited evening and nighttime city. Furthermore, lower intensity evening activities such as theatres and cinemas are distinguished from the higher intensity nighttime activities of pubs and clubs, with restaurants and cafés occupying an intermediate position. The evening clientele visit less frequently and are disproportionately drawn from the older and higher status social groups, whereas later at night, pubs and clubs are visited more frequently, and by imbalances of the young, lower status groups, and students. The city centre is seen as an area of spatial, temporal, and social segregation, with implications for policies that aim towards a more inclusive and safer 24-hour city. The conclusions emphasise the importance of time in urban geographical research and in policies for city-centre revitalisation.

Market-place Trading and the Transformation of Retail Space in the Expanding Latin American City

The global spread of the supermarket and the planned shopping centre is transforming retail space in the Latin American city. Nevertheless, market-place trading has continued to flourish in most cities and is itself a key element of retail change. A case study of Quito shows how new periodic markets have been established and that, as demand density grows, these are consolidated into daily markets. Much of the dynamism in market-place trading is associated with government intervention, with principal policies being the creation of markets in poorly served urban areas and a reduction in the concentration of market-place trading in the historic centre. Speculations about competition and complementarity between supermarket and market underline the need for further research and an understanding of the consumption patterns which support the continued heterogeneity of retail forms in the Latin American city.

Child experiences as street traders in Peru: contributing to a reappraisal for working children

By exploring the experiences of over a hundred child traders in Cusco, this research provides an insight into the more everyday circumstances of childrens work in developing countries. The working conditions of child traders raise serious concerns, including: dangers of accidents, theft and abuse; shortage of time for play; and some disruption to education. Nevertheless, the positives of trading work are substantial. Although the children feel that they have to work, they gain enjoyment and economic empowerment. Moreover, they display a certain self esteem and confidence in the knowledge of their trading skills, and a spatial awareness of the best trading sites, demonstrating agency in their choice of trading locations. The findings suggest that international policy, which emphasises universal condemnation and prohibition of child work, requires revision. Such policy should be replaced by a more flexible approach, which recognises the benefits of childrens work and embraces supportive protection for children engaged in the lighter forms of work such as trading.

Feeling Unsafe in Urban Areas: Exploring Older Children's Geographies of Fear

In contrast to the adult and aspatial focus of much research, this paper examines older childrens feelings of fear/safety in two contrasting British urban residential areas, and in the nearby city centre. In their home areas, children in the deprived area feel less safe than those in the wealthier suburb. However, in the city centre, the poorer-area children feel safer than their wealthier-area counterparts, suggesting a home-area moderating effect. Regarding gendered-area differences in safety, boys and girls have similar perspectives on their home areas, but significant gender differences exist for the city centre. Area should be a key dimension in conceptual frameworks for understanding fear and safety, with due awareness of home and nonhome areas, and gendered-area differences. Explanations for childrens anxieties indicate the importance of fear of groups of teenagers and the relevance of social disorganization. Tackling the perceived problem of teenage groups should be one policy priority in urban areas in which social disorder is pronounced.

New ‘High Streets’ in the Suburbs? the growing competitive impact of evolving retail parks

Abstract Following the emergence of retail parks in the late 1970s in Britain, they have grown in number, scale and degree of retail specialisation. Some continue to form concentrations offering primarily ‘bulky goods’ shopping, while others have diversified to offer traditional ‘high street’ functions from stores indistinguishable from their town and city centre equivalents. Consequently, in some cases the emergence of new ‘high streets’ in the suburbs can be posited. In view of the potential impact such developments might have on traditional shopping centres, this study reviews the development of retail parks in Britain in recent years, and examines the commercial impact of a retail park in the process of transition towards a suburban ‘high street’. Evidence from surveys in 2003 and 2004 of the Fforestfach Retail Park in the greater Swansea area indicates that the transition towards a suburban ‘high street’ is beginning to impact significantly on traditional shopping centres of all types. It was evident that even small additions of ‘high street’ functions between the two recent survey dates elicited a statistically significant strengthening of their trading impact. Consequently, it is suggested that upgraded retail parks are likely to become stronger competitive threats to the full range of district, town and city centres if ‘high street’ functions continue to be added to retail parks.