Roy C. Herrenkohl

Intersection of Child Abuse and Children's Exposure to Domestic Violence:

This review addresses research on the overlap in physical child abuse and domestic violence, the prediction of child outcomes, and resilience in children exposed to family violence. The authors explore current findings on the intersection of physical child abuse and domestic violence within the context of other risk factors, including community violence and related family and environmental stressors. Evidence from the studies reviewed suggests considerable overlap, compounding effects, and possible gender differences in outcomes of violence exposure. The data indicate a need to apply a broad conceptualization of risk to the study of family violence and its effects on children. Further testing of competing theoretical models will advance understanding of the pathways through which exposure leads to later problems in youth, as well as protective factors and processes through which resilience unfolds.

The Effects of Child Abuse and Exposure to Domestic Violence on Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems

This study examines the effects of child abuse and domestic violence exposure in childhood on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Data for this analysis are from the Lehigh Longitudinal Study, a prospective study of 457 youth addressing outcomes of family violence and resilience in individuals and families. Results show that child abuse, domestic violence, and both in combination (i.e., dual exposure) increase a child’s risk for internalizing and externalizing outcomes in adolescence. When accounting for risk factors associated with additional stressors in the family and surrounding environment, only those children with dual exposure had an elevated risk of the tested outcomes compared to non-exposed youth. However, while there were some observable differences in the prediction of outcomes for children with dual exposure compared to those with single exposure (i.e., abuse only or exposure to domestic violence only), these difference were not statistically significant. Analyses showed that the effects of exposure for boys and girls are statistically comparable.

Longitudinal Study on the Effects of Child Abuse and Children’s Exposure to Domestic Violence, Parent-Child Attachments, and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescence

This study examined the unique and combined effects of child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence on later attachment to parents and antisocial behavior during adolescence. Analyses also investigated whether the interaction of exposure and low attachment predicted youth outcomes. Findings suggest that, although youth dually exposed to abuse and domestic violence were less attached to parents in adolescence than those who were not exposed, for those who were abused only and those who were exposed only to domestic violence, the relationship between exposure types and youth outcomes did not differ by level of attachment to parents. However, stronger bonds of attachment to parents in adolescence did appear to predict a lower risk of antisocial behavior independent of exposure status. Preventing child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence could lessen the risk of antisocial behavior during adolescence, as could strengthening parent—child attachments in adolescence. However, strengthening attachments between parents and children after exposure may not be sufficient to counter the negative impact of earlier violence trauma in children.

Examining the Overlap and Prediction of Multiple Forms of Child Maltreatment, Stressors, and Socioeconomic Status: A Longitudinal Analysis of Youth Outcomes

Analyses were conducted to examine the extent of overlap and predictive strength of multiple forms of child maltreatment and stressors internal and external to the family. Findings suggest a strong association between child maltreatment (physical and sexual abuse, neglect, and exposure to domestic violence) and stressors (family conflict, personal problems of parents, and external constraints on the family). After controlling for stressors, family socioeconomic status, and child gender, a general construct of child maltreatment was predictive of internalizing and externalizing behaviors in adolescents. Specific effects of child physical and sexual abuse were revealed in these longitudinal structural equation model tests.

Defining and Measuring Employee Empowerment

The study had three objectives: to define employee empowerment, to develop a measure of the concept, and to examine the measure’s validity. A working definition was specified and a 140-item measure developed. The measure was administered to 698 employees of a high technology company located in the Midwest. Responses were factor analyzed and an 8-factor solution was identified as best representing the concepts underlying the responses. A validity study examined the ability of the 8 dimensions to differentiate among 28 workgroups, identified independently either as more empowered or as less empowered. Two dimensions, fairness of the recognition system and decisions about work processes, clearly contributed to discriminating between the two types of groups. A third dimension, clarity of company goals, was a somewhat less clear contributor. Reasons why some dimensions discriminated more from less empowered groups whereas others did not are discussed.

Assessing a Child’s Experience of Multiple Maltreatment Types: Some Unfinished Business

Available research indicates that maltreated children frequently experience multiple types of maltreatment, although relatively few studies examine this issue directly. Review of existing studies also shows that, when investigated, maltreatment types are often correlated. However, from study to study the strength of associations among maltreatment types varies considerably, apparently due to methodological differences, such as differences in operational definitions of the maltreatment types, composition of samples and/or method of scaling used. Failure to account for overlap among maltreatment types can result in a misleading picture of a child’s trauma history. This in turn can lead to an inaccurate evaluation of the relationship between a child’s victimization experiences and later developmental outcomes. The wide variation in correlations among the maltreatment types from study to study raises questions about the validity of the different operational definitions used. Improving the construct validity of the maltreatment type measures is proposed as the means to obtaining more consistent results. Steps by which to achieve this objective are outlined.

The Psychosocial Consequences of Living Environment Instability on Maltreated Children

The relationship between stability of living arrangements and adolescent deviance was examined for 212 adolescents in a longitudinal study of maltreated and non maltreated children. Transitions in caretakers and residences have a statistically significant relationship to 5 indicators of adolescent deviant behavior. While maltreatment in childhood poses a risk for later deviance in adolescence, the risk can be even greater for those who have experienced more transitions while growing up.

A Comparison of Abused Children and Their Nonabused Siblings

Abstract We compared 295 targets of abuse to 284 nonabused siblings with reference to birth record data and maternal perceptions of the birth and subsequent development of the child. Prematurity; Apgar scores: age of mother at childs birth; self-reports of postpartum depression; maternal perceptions of emotional difficulties of the child, of the childs ability to be influenced by the mother, and of negative characteristics of the child reminiscent of others were related to certain types of abuse and gross neglect. Explanatory hypotheses include weakened attachment bonds and maternal projection of negative attributes and feelings of helplessness.

Parent-Child Interactions in Abusive and Nonabusive Families

Parent-child interactions of 439 parent-child dyads were studied. These included 182 interactions with maltreated children, 199 interactions with maltreating adults, with the remaining interactions from control families served by child welfare agencies, day-care programs, Head Start, and private nursery schools. Income was found to be a significant determinant with parental behavior being more child-centered and supportive at the upper income level, and more parent-centered and child rejecting at the lower income level. Maltreatment was found to be associated with more parental rejection and less child warmth, over and above the effects of income level. The results are discussed in terms of an ecological model of child maltreatment and developmental implications for the victims of maltreatment.

A prospective investigation of the relationship between child maltreatment and indicators of adult psychological well-being.

The study of psychological well-being will advance understanding of child maltreatment effects and resilience processes. In this study, the mean level of anger in adulthood was significantly higher for those identified three decades earlier as having been maltreated. Mean levels of self-esteem, autonomy, purpose in life, perceived (fewer) constraints, and happiness and satisfaction were lower for those who were maltreated according to child welfare reports. Officially recorded child maltreatment was moderately (r < .30) correlated with several psychological well-being indicators and predictive of adult anger, self-esteem, autonomy, and happiness/life satisfaction after accounting for childhood socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and other sources of data on child abuse and neglect. Parent-reported abusive disciplining also uniquely predicted several outcomes, as did a measure of observed child neglect to a lesser extent.