Roy Hartenstein

Growth of the earthworm Eisenia foetida in relation to population density and food rationing

At 250C Eisenia foetida hatches from its cocoon about 3 weeks after fertilization and follows a logistic growth pattern. It grows slowly for about three weeks and then enters a rapid phase whose slope is useful as an index to the nutritional quality of its food. The rapid phase is followed by a steady state maintenance phase, or by a phase of weight decline whose slope can be used as an index to a property of the food which is related to starvation latency. The slope of the rapid phase for individually grown worms was steeper on activated sludge than on cow manure and steeper on the latter than on horse manure. The maximum weight achieved by individually tested E. foetida was significantly greater with activated sludge than with either manure as food. The manures provided nutrients at a rate suboptimal to genetic capability for growth but either served as a better source of food than sludge when submaintenance levels remained, or were less toxic as castings. In a volume of about 30 cc over an area 78 cm2 the carrying capacity of 250 g horse manure on 50 g silt loam was 6 g live weight E. foetida; this value for these periodically disturbed systems is considerably less than what can be achieved in undisturbed systems published elsewhere. Carrying capacity was not achieved in the same volume-area-time relation with activated sludge in place of manure, though more than 23 g could be supported; more than ten times as much biomass of E. foetida can be supported per unit area of soil overlain by activated sludge than has been reported for earthworms in natural ecosystems.

Reproductive potential of the earthworm Eisenia foetida

SummaryRegression equations are provided for the earthworm Eisenia foetida with respect to age at which 50% of the population became clitellate at 25° C in relation to population density in activated sludge and in horse manure. Regression equations are provided for progeny per cocoon versus weight of cocoon, and weight of cocoon in relation to weight of parent; from these an equation is derived for progeny per cocoon relative to worm weight. Regression equations are given on (a) number of cocoons produced per adult in relation to age and population density from onset of adulthood to median peak production of cocoons, age 10 weeks, and from age 10 weeks to age 27 weeks, and (b) weight of worm in relation to population density and age between ages 5 and 27 weeks. From (a) and (b) a family of equations (c) are derived giving progeny per cocoon in relation to age of adult and population density. From equations (a) and (c) two families of equations are generated giving progeny per adult in relation to ascent to, and descent from, the median week of peak cocoon production in relation to population density. Data also are provided on age at which reproduction terminates in relation to population density, optimum population density for reproduction, and hatchability.

Physicochemical requirements in the environment of the earthworm Eisenia foetida.

Survival and/or growth were used to assess optimum and potentially deleterious physico-chemical conditions in the environment of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. Maximum weight was gained between 20 and 29°C with horse manure or activated sludge as food. Maximum weight gain as a function of moisture in activated sludge occurred between 70 and 85%. All worms died within a week at pH values 9; optimum pH for gain in weight centered around 7.0 Soluble salts in excess of 0.5% were lethal, though ammonium acetate caused 100% mortality at a concentration of 0.1%; concentrations in manures contaminated by urine or cattle slurry may be lethal, while those present in noncontaminated manure, with an electrolytic conductivity of 1.5–3mmhos, support weight gain. Inorganic chemicals that are commonly used to coagulate sludges, often as a preliminary to land application, were innocuous at concentrations higher than those normally used at wastewater treatment plants. Anaerobically digested sludges are toxic to earthworms, and are characterized by low oxidation-reduction potentials; when placed upon a soil substrate the redox potential increases slowly, and though the sludge tested in this study was nontoxic at Eh values in excess of 250 mV, it provided insufficient nutriment to E. foetida to allow weight gain. With activated sludge as food, growth of E. foetida occurred more rapidly when soil was present, independently of whether it was placed as a substrate beneath the sludge or mixed into the sludge. Growth occurred more rapidly when activated sludge was placed on substrates which allowed drainage, though loam or ashed loam appeared superior to others, such as glass beads or sand; the growth promoting factor is related to the inorganic fraction of the soil.

Production and carrying capacity for the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris in culture

Abstract Approximately 8 h were required at 25°C for food to pass from mouth to anus in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. Gut load per unit transit appeared inversely related to nitrogen content; values of about 2 and 44 mg dry castings per 100mg dry worm were obtained with activated sludge and mineral soil, respectively. Production of biomass was greater in a substrate of activated sludge and loam relative to activated sludge and cellulose, despite higher concentrations of nitrogen in the latter. Optimum population density was about 8 earthworms (31 g live wt) in 1000cm3 2:1 sludge:soil. Growth occurred at a maximum rate between 15 and 25°C. A yield of approximately 4% biomass (dry wt) was obtained on a mixture of activated sludge and loam, based on the content of organic matter present.

Materials supporting weight gain by the earthworm Eisenia foetida in waste conversion systems.

A variety of ‘simple’ nutrients (such as proteins or pure carbohydrates), microorganisms and organic wastes, including food wastes, manures, sludges and paper, were tested for suitability as food for the earthworm E. foetida. Simple nutrients inflict mortality, or at least do not support weight gain; nutritional benefits are derived only from cellular mass. Food particles less than about 2 mm2 support weight gain and the weight gain is inversely proportional to particle size. Presence of soil promotes growth, which is shown in another study to be due to the inorganic fraction. Weight was gained maximally at low C/N ratios, in the range 15 to 35. It is concluded that E. foetida should be considered seriously for use in natural ecosystems and commercial enterprises for accelerating the decomposition of biodegradable wastes.

Use of Earthworm Biotechnology for the Management of Effluents from Intensively Housed Livestock

With a rapidly expanding world population, growing use of intensive animal husbandry, and increasingly stringent waste disposal legislation, the problem of disposing of livestock effluent is already severe. This article discusses, both qualitatively and quantitatively, how such organic waste can be effectively disposed of on a large scale by systematically managing the destructive and productive activities of earthworms.

Kinetics and characteristics of humic acids produced from simple phenols

Abstract In the presence of H 2 O 2 as donor, horseradish peroxidase was used to catalyze the polymerization of seven monomeric phenols. Yields of humic acid (HA) polymers from meta phenols—resorcinol and phloroglucinol—were insignificant. Of the five ortho and para phenols—phenol, catechol, hydroquinone, pyrogallol and 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene—all except hydroquinone inhibited the enzyme at high concentration. The kinetics of polymerization of the ortho and para compounds were complex and dependent on the concentration of both electron acceptor and donor. The percentage yield of HA before dialysis was far greater from pyrogallol than from catechol or hydroquinone. After dialysis, the yield of the catechol HA was higher than those of the hydroquinone and pyrogallol HAs. A higher molecular weight for the catechol HA over those of the hydroquinone and pyrogallol HAs was also indicated by the lowest E 4 /E 6 ratio and highest free radical content. All of the synthetic HAs were relatively rich in free radicals, suggesting that their synthesis occurred via free radicals, i.r. and 13 C NMR spectra showed that the HAs were molecularly complex polymers or mixtures of complex aromatic structures rich in phenolic OH groups and to a lesser extent in CO 2 H groups. The only HA which showed fine structure in the i.r. spectrum was the pyrogallol HA; the presence of aryl ethers was indicated. 13 C NMR spectra showed that all synthetic HAs were highly aromatic, that aromatic rings of the initial phenols had been built into the HAs, but that molecular environments around phenolic OH groups had changed during the formation of the HAs.

Phylogeny and correlations of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase, xanthine dehydrogenase and peroxidase in animal tissues

Abstract 1. 1. Seventy-nine animal species were surveyed spectrophotometrically for peroxidase, aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase and, in fewer species, xanthine dehydrogenase activites. 2. 2. None of the four oxidases was measurable in phytogenetically primitive species. 3. 3. Twelve species displayed peroxidase alone, eleven species displayed xanthine or aldehyde oxidase alone and thirty-three species displayed peroxidase and one, two or three of the other oxidases. 4. 4. Aldehyde oxidase appeared to be phylogenetically primitive to xanthine dehydrogenase, which in turn was primitive to xanthine oxidase. 5. 5. Aldehyde oxidase was widely distributed among molluscs, crustaceans, insects and alll the vertebrate classes except birds. 6. 6. Peroxidase was present in all vertebrates and in those invertebrates that burrow in soil and detritus. 7. 7. Xanthine dehydrogenase incidence was high in insects and fish. 8. 8. Xanthine oxidase was found with certainty only in birds, mammals and one arachnid. 9. 9. Most uricotelic animals displayed either xanthine oxidase or xanthine dehydrogenase. 10. 10. Two insects appeared to shift from xanthine dehydrogenase in their larval stage to aldehyde oxidase in their adult stage.

Decomposition of lignins by microorganisms

Abstract Soil microorganisms, inducing bacteria, fungi imperfecti, and basidiomycetes were investigated to determine their roles in lignin degradation. White-rot basidiomycete fungi and some bacteria demonstrated ability to degrade specifically-labeled synthetic lignins (DHPs). White-rot basidiomycetes degraded methoxyl groups and bacteria degraded side chains most rapidly. Fungi imperfecti, brown-rot basidiomycetes and some bacteria were unable to degrade DHPs. Interactions of white-rot basidiomycetes with imperfects usually resulted in decresed rates of DHP degradation. Attempts to correlate the ability to degrade DHPs with ability of the microorganisms to grow upon aromatic C sources, demethylate p-( 14 CH 3 O ) phenyl and produce monooxygenases, dioxygenases, and polyphenoloxidases were unsuccessful.

Problems with toluene and the determination of extracellular enzyme activity in soils

Abstract Six of 7 fungi imperfecti, 7 of 13 basidiomycetes, and 6 of 14 bacteria tested were able to grow with 0.1 or 0.05% toluene as a sole source of carbon indicating an invalid use of toluene as a biostatic agent for analysis of extracellular enzymes in soil. Analysis of laccase and peroxidase activities in soil under controlled laboratory conditions revealed significant variability, indicating even greater difficulty in evaluating these soil enzyme activities under natural conditions.