Roya Ayman

Leadership: Why gender and culture matter.

For decades, understanding of leadership has been largely based on the results of studies carried out on White men in the United States. We review major theories and models of leadership as they pertain to either gender or culture. We focus on 3 approaches to leadership: trait (including leadership categorization or implicit leadership theory), behavioral (including the two-factor, transformational-transactional leadership, and leader-member exchange models), and contingency (i.e., contingency model of leadership effectiveness and normative decision making). We discuss how dynamics related to either culture or gender (e.g., stereotypes and schemas, ingroup-outgroup interaction, role expectations, power and status differentials) can have an important impact on many aspects of leadership.

A Multi-level Approach to Cross Cultural Work-Family Research A Micro and Macro Perspective

This article describes the theoretical framework and rationale that underlie a large-scale international study of the work-family interface. This research study utilizes a multi-level, theoretically based approach. It is being undertaken by a collaborative, multicultural team composed of indigenous researchers from countries that were selected based on theoretically important dimensions. It consists of three empirical components: (1) qualitative focus groups, (2) a social policy analysis, and (3) a quantitative two-wave survey. Thus the data are both qualitative and quantitative, both emic and etic, and both micro- and macro-level in nature.

The contingency model of leadership effectiveness: Its levels of analysis

Abstract The contingency model of leadership effectiveness (Fiedler, 1978) has been the basis for an extensive body of research. During the last three decades, numerous studies have supported its propositions (Peters, Hartke, & Pohlmann, 1985; Strube & Garcia, 1981), but the model has also elicited strong criticisms. This article argues that the contingency model was one of the first models in leadership research that was theoretically multi-level and methodologically multi-source. New evidence and alternative perspectives are offered to address the issues concerning the conceptual definitions of the models components, which have often been the subject of debate. The discussion concludes with productive avenues for future research in the paradigm and its potential contributions to leadership training and development within a multi-level framework.

Communication Medium and Member Familiarity The Effects on Decision Time, Accuracy, and Satisfaction

The effects of communication medium and member familiarity on decision time, member satisfaction, and decision accuracy were explored. The study represents the first known attempt to examine the role of member familiarity on the study variables in face-to-face (FTF) and computer-mediated (CM) mediums. The results of 71 three-person groups revealed familiarity affected decision time and accuracy within the CM condition. For CM groups only, as member familiarity among group members increased, decision time decreased, and unexpectedly decision accuracy decreased. Another finding for CM group members was an indication that familiarity increased satisfaction with group process. Last, satisfaction with communication medium was only influenced by the communication medium (CM group members were less satisfied). It appears that familiarity plays a larger role in CM groups than in FTF groups. Implications are discussed.

Should Women Managers Have to Act like Men

Although getting along with people is just as important to being a good manager as being able to get the job done, according to the current stereotype the ideal manager is task‐oriented rather than person‐oriented. Here the importance of feminine qualities and interpersonal skills for managerial effectiveness are discussed. Interviews with 30 women managers illustrate the fact that women can approach management with a “masculine” (task‐oriented), “feminine” (people‐oriented), or an “androgynous” style which combines the two. The androgynous style is the one most likely to be successful.

Social Support and Work-Family Conflict

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the scientific literature to define social support and the various sources of support. Subsequently, evidence is presented regarding the role that social support plays in the work–family interface and its consequences for the work and nonwork domains of life. Throughout, variances attributed to individual differences are also highlighted. It illustrates the importance of social support in our society is evidenced by the prevalence of research on its nature and its role in peoples lives. Busy workers with multiple roles, who are trying to meet numerous expectations, seem to find refuge in one form of support or another through various individuals in their social networks. With the number of dual-career families and single parents increasing, the level of stress in the typical workers life is also intensified. The better social support is understood, the more guidance and alternatives can be provided to the stressed worker of today. It presents various definitions of social support that is followed by an overview of the sources of support and the types of support provided. The use of support across gender and ethnicity is briefly discussed, particularly as it relates to work–family conflict (WFC). Finally a discussion of the effect of social support on work–family and organizational outcomes follow.

Discrepancies in Self/Subordinates' Perceptions of Leadership Behavior LEADER'S GENDER, ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT, AND LEADER'S SELF-MONITORING

The focus of this study was on how a leader’s gender, the organizational context (in-role vs. out-of-role), and self-monitoring ability related to discrepancies between the leader’s self-perceptions and group members’ perceptions of the leader’s consideration and initiating structure behaviors. Forty-nine male and 49 female leaders from industrial and educational settings, as well as members of their work teams, participated in this survey research. Results indicated greater discrepancies for women leaders in industrial settings (e. g., banking, accounting, and manufacturing) than for female leaders in education and male leaders in industry. In addition, discrepancies in perceptions of initiating structure were highest for high self-monitoring female leaders in industry. These results were explained from actor-observer difference, expectation states, and gender stereotype perspectives.

Work flexibility as a mediator of the relationship between work–family conflict and intention to quit

In a sample of 243 women from a Midwestern healthcare organization, we found that the work-to-family interference (WIF) was positively related to intentions to quit. Significant relationships were found among work flexibility, WIF, and intention to quit. This relationship was supported, allowing us to conclude that employees who perceive personal control and autonomy in their work environment (as defined by how, when and where they work) will report lower levels of WIF and intentions to quit. The implications of these findings on future research and organizational practice are discussed.

The Construct Validity of Scales from four Leadership Questionnaires

Abstract The construct validity of leadership scales from the Ohio State, managerial grid, tri-dimensional leader effectiveness, and leadership contingency models was investigated using LISREL. American college students completed four survey instruments designed to provide worker- and work-orientation scores for each of the leadership models. The Ohio State and tri-dimensional scales were most closely associated with latent variables representing worker- and work-oriented dimensions. Also, rather than being orthogonal, the worker- and work-oriented dimensions displayed a moderately low negative correlation.

Leadership Orientation as a Moderator of the Relationship between Job Performance and Job Satisfaction of Mexican Managers

A survey of 82 Mexican managers in nine Mexican organizations was conducted. Managers completed measures of leadership style (LPC) and reported job satisfaction on the Job Description Index. Managerial performance on the individual and group level was rated by each managers supervisor. Consistent with predictions based on the contingency model of leadership, task-motivated leaders evidenced much stronger relationships between job performance and job satisfaction than did relationship-motivated leaders.