Rudolf H. Scheffrahn

A Review of subterranean termite control practices and prospects for integrated pest management programmes.

Soil insecticide barriers have been the single most important tool for subterranean termite control in the last half century, but limitations with current soil termiticides have provided the impetus to look for alternatives in recent years. One such alternative is the monitoring--baiting programme. Monitoring stations to detect termites are placed in the soil surrounding a structure. Once termites are found in the stations, monitoring devices are replaced with slow-acting baits such as the chitin synthesis inhibitor, hexaflumuron. Field studies have indicated that termite colonies were eliminated using less than 1 g of hexaflumuron. After the elimination, monitoring resumes and bait is applied if new termite activity is detected. The monitoring and baiting procedure form the basis for an ongoing programme to protect structures from subterranean termite infestation. Although the cost--benefit model developed for agricultural integrated pest management cannot be applied directly to termite control, the underlying concept for using a cost-effective approach remains the same. The benefits of the monitoring--baiting programme over conventional soil treatment are a reduction in pesticide applied per unit and the elimination of termite populations near structures, resulting in the reduction of liability and damage potential. It is expected that the data management system when used in conjunction with the monitoring--baiting programme will provide a database to improve its cost-effectiveness continuously.

Keys to Soldier and Winged Adult Termites (Isoptera) of Florida

Illustrated identification keys are presented for soldiers and winged adults of the following 17 termite species known from Florida: Calcaritermes nearcticus Snyder, Neotermes castaneus (Burmeister), N. jouteli (Banks), N. luykxi Nickle and Collins, Kalotermes approximatus Snyder, Incisitermes milleri (Emerson), I. minor (Hagen), I. schwarzi (Banks), I. snyderi (Light), Cryptotermes brevis (Walker), and C. cavifrons Banks, Family Kalotermitidae; Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), R. hageni Banks, R. virginicus (Banks), and Prorhinotermes simplex (Hagen), Family Rhinotermitidae; and Amitermes floridensis Scheffrahn, Mangold, & Su, Family Termitidae.

High-Resolution Analysis of Gut Environment and Bacterial Microbiota Reveals Functional Compartmentation of the Gut in Wood-Feeding Higher Termites (Nasutitermes spp.)

ABSTRACT Higher termites are characterized by a purely prokaryotic gut microbiota and an increased compartmentation of their intestinal tract. In soil-feeding species, each gut compartment has different physicochemical conditions and is colonized by a specific microbial community. Although considerable information has accumulated also for wood-feeding species of the genus Nasutitermes, including cellulase activities and metagenomic data, a comprehensive study linking physicochemical gut conditions with the structure of the microbial communities in the different gut compartments is lacking. In this study, we measured high-resolution profiles of H2, O2, pH, and redox potential in the gut of Nasutitermes corniger termites, determined the fermentation products accumulating in the individual gut compartments, and analyzed the bacterial communities in detail by pyrotag sequencing of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA genes. The dilated hindgut paunch (P3 compartment) was the only anoxic gut region, showed the highest density of bacteria, and accumulated H2 to high partial pressures (up to 12 kPa). Molecular hydrogen is apparently produced by a dense community of Spirochaetes and Fibrobacteres, which also dominate the gut of other Nasutitermes species. All other compartments, such as the alkaline P1 compartment (average pH, 10.0), showed high redox potentials and comprised small but distinct populations characteristic for each gut region. In the crop and the posterior hindgut compartments, the community was even more diverse than in the paunch. Similarities in the communities of the posterior hindgut and crop suggested that proctodeal trophallaxis or coprophagy also occurs in higher termites. The large sampling depths of pyrotag sequencing in combination with the determination of important physicochemical parameters allow cautious conclusions concerning the functions of particular bacterial lineages in the respective gut sections to be drawn.

Comparative Metagenomic and Metatranscriptomic Analysis of Hindgut Paunch Microbiota in Wood- and Dung-Feeding Higher Termites

Termites effectively feed on many types of lignocellulose assisted by their gut microbial symbionts. To better understand the microbial decomposition of biomass with varied chemical profiles, it is important to determine whether termites harbor different microbial symbionts with specialized functionalities geared toward different feeding regimens. In this study, we compared the microbiota in the hindgut paunch of Amitermes wheeleri collected from cow dung and Nasutitermes corniger feeding on sound wood by 16S rRNA pyrotag, comparative metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analyses. We found that Firmicutes and Spirochaetes were the most abundant phyla in A. wheeleri, in contrast to N. corniger where Spirochaetes and Fibrobacteres dominated. Despite this community divergence, a convergence was observed for functions essential to termite biology including hydrolytic enzymes, homoacetogenesis and cell motility and chemotaxis. Overrepresented functions in A. wheeleri relative to N. corniger microbiota included hemicellulose breakdown and fixed-nitrogen utilization. By contrast, glycoside hydrolases attacking celluloses and nitrogen fixation genes were overrepresented in N. corniger microbiota. These observations are consistent with dietary differences in carbohydrate composition and nutrient contents, but may also reflect the phylogenetic difference between the hosts.

Termites as Pests of Buildings

Of the more than 2,300 termite species in the world, 183 species are known to damage buildings and 83 species cause significant damage. Subterranean termites, including mound building and arboreal species, account for 147 (80%) of the economically important species. The genus Coptotermes contains the largest number of pest species (28), whereas the genus Cryptotermes, especially Cr. brevis, is the most widely introduced. The world-wide economic impact figure of termites is uncertain, but the control cost for termite pests in the United States was estimated at

Genetic evidence for the synonymy of two Reticulitermes species : Reticulitermes flavipes and Reticulitermes santonensis

1.5 billion annually in 1994. Because of differences in their life histories, control measures differ between subterranean and drywood species. Insecticide barriers are used for exclusion of soil-borne subterranean termites, whereas slow-acting baits are used for population control of subterranean termite colonies in and near structures. Whole-structure treatments (fumigation and heat), compartmental treatments (heat or cold), and local treatments (wood surface treatments or insecticide injection) are the primary tools for drywood termite control.

Proteome insights into the symbiotic relationship between a captive colony of Nasutitermes corniger and its hindgut microbiome

Abstract By applying the 16S rRNA mitochondrial marker to 434 populations of Reticulitermes termites from North, Central, and South America; France; and Germany with other locations around the world that we have analyzed, identical DNA sequence data were obtained from Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) in North America and Germany and for Reticulitermes santonensis Feytaud from undisturbed (nonurban) forested locations in western France. We also discovered identical DNA sequence data from previously unidentified Reticulitermes specimens from South America and Easter Island. Haplotypes F, M, and GG were observed in France; haplotype F in Germany; and haplotype GG was found on Easter Island, Santiago, Chile, and Montevideo, Uruguay. All of these haplotypes are found in numerous states within the continental United States. In light of their well documented morphological, chemical, and phylogenetic relationships, coupled with this new data that directly link these disjunct groups, R. flavipes and R. santonensis should be synonymized. Compared with other studies that largely suggest phyletic similarities, this is the first study that specifically matches haplotypes from North America (where populations of R. flavipes are endemic) with populations in Europe (where R. flavipes, described as R. santonensis, is presumed exotic).

Synonymy of Neotropical Arboreal Termites Nasutitermes corniger and N. costalis (Isoptera: Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae), with Evidence from Morphology, Genetics, and Biogeography

We analyzed the metaproteome of the bacterial community resident in the hindgut paunch of the wood-feeding ‘higher’ termite (Nasutitermes) and identified 886 proteins, 197 of which have known enzymatic function. Using these enzymes, we reconstructed complete metabolic pathways revealing carbohydrate transport and metabolism, nitrogen fixation and assimilation, energy production, amino-acid synthesis and significant pyruvate ferredoxin/flavodoxin oxidoreductase protein redundancy. Our results suggest that the activity associated with these enzymes may have more of a role in the symbiotic relationship between the hindgut microbial community and its termite host than activities related to cellulose degradation.

A NEW INTRODUCTION OF A SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE, COPTOTERMES HAVILANDI HOLMGREN (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE) IN MIAMI, FLORIDA

Abstract Morphological examination of soldiers and imagos assigned to Nasutitermes corniger or N. costalis from 13 Neotropical countries and 42 West Indian islands revealed congruent characters and biometric overlap. A portion of the mitochondrial DNA 16S rRNA gene was sequenced from nine N. costalis and N. corniger samples. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the N. costalis/corniger DNA sequences relative to other Nasutitermes spp. supported the morphological evidence that these species are conspecific. Complementary biological, behavioral, biochemical, and reproductive ecology further support the presented synonymy. The senior synonym, N. corniger, is given nomenclatural precedence. The geographical distribution of N. corniger is revised.

A molecular survey of Australian and North American termite genera indicates that vertical inheritance is the primary force shaping termite gut microbiomes

During April 1996, we were informed by the Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services of a possible new infestation of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, in a commercial building at the northwest corner of Highway 1 and State Road 836 in Miami, Florida (Fig. 1). This infestation, which is 2 blocks west of the Port of Miami, is about 10 km south of the currently known distribution of C. formosanus in southeastern Florida, and about 1.5 km south of the site of another introduced subterranean termite, Heterotermes species (Scheffrahn & Su 1995). A large number of alates swarmed in the front office of this building, and numerous foraging tubes similar to those of C. formosanus were found on the garage walls. Workers and soldiers were also collected from a nearby tree. A close examina-