Rudy Vanderhaeghen

An S18 ribosomal protein gene copy at the Arabidopsis PFL locus affects plant development by its specific expression in meristems.

In Arabidopsis, mutation at PFL causes pointed first leaves, reduced fresh weight and growth retardation. We have cloned the wild‐type PFL gene by T‐DNA tagging, and demonstrate that it complements the mutant phenotype. PFL codes for ribosomal protein S18, based on the high homology with rat S18 and on purification of S18‐equivalent peptides from plant ribosomes. pfl represents the first mutation in eukaryotic S18 proteins or their S13 prokaryotic counterparts, involved in translation initiation. Arabidopsis contains three S18 gene copies dispersed in the genetic map; they are all transcribed and code for completely identical proteins. No transcript is detected from the mutated gene, S18A. The activity of the S18A promoter is restricted to meristems, with a markedly high expression at the embryonic heart stage, and to wounding sites. This means that plants activate an extra copy of this ribosomal protein gene in tissues with cell division activity. We postulate that in meristematic tissues plants use transcriptional control to synthesize extra ribosomes to increase translational efficiency. In analogy with this, an additional, developmentally regulated gene copy might be expected for all ribosomal proteins.

Quantitative cDNA-AFLP analysis for genome-wide expression studies

An improved cDNA-AFLP method for genome-wide expression analysis has been developed. We demonstrate that this method is an efficient tool for quantitative transcript profiling and a valid alternative to microarrays. Unique transcript tags, generated from reverse-transcribed messenger RNA by restriction enzymes, were screened through a series of selective PCR amplifications. Based on in silico analysis, an enzyme combination was chosen that ensures that at least 60% of all the mRNAs were represented by an informative sequence tag. The sensitivity and specificity of the method allows one to detect poorly expressed genes and distinguish between homologous sequences. Accurate gene expression profiles were determined by quantitative analysis of band intensities, and subtle differences in transcriptional activity were revealed. A detailed screen for cell cycle-modulated genes in tobacco demonstrates the usefulness of the technology for genome-wide expression analysis.

Building Blocks for Plant Gene Assembly

The MultiSite Gateway cloning system, based on site-specific recombination, enables the assembly of multiple DNA fragments in predefined order, orientation, and frame register. To streamline the construction of recombinant genes for functional analysis in plants, we have built a collection of 36 reference Gateway entry clones carrying promoters, terminators, and reporter genes, as well as elements of the LhG4/LhGR two-component system. This collection obeys simple engineering rules. The genetic elements (parts) are designed in a standard format. They are interchangeable, fully documented, and can be combined at will according to the desired output. We also took advantage of the MultiSite Gateway recombination sites to create vectors in which two or three genes can be cloned simultaneously in separate expression cassettes. To illustrate the flexibility of these core resources for the construction of a wide variety of plant transformation vectors, we generated various transgenes encoding fluorescent proteins and tested their activity in plant cells. The structure and sequence of all described plasmids are accessible online at http://www.psb.ugent.be/gateway/. All accessions can be requested via the same Web site.

APETALA2/ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR and basic helix–loop–helix tobacco transcription factors cooperatively mediate jasmonate‐elicited nicotine biosynthesis

Transcription factors of the plant-specific apetala2/ethylene response factor (AP2/ERF) family control plant secondary metabolism, often as part of signalling cascades induced by jasmonate (JA) or other elicitors. Here, we functionally characterized the JA-inducible tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) AP2/ERF factor ORC1, one of the members of the NIC2-locus ERFs that control nicotine biosynthesis and a close homologue of ORCA3, a transcriptional activator of alkaloid biosynthesis in Catharanthus roseus. ORC1 positively regulated the transcription of several structural genes coding for the enzymes involved in nicotine biosynthesis. Accordingly, overexpression of ORC1 was sufficient to stimulate alkaloid biosynthesis in tobacco plants and tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) root cultures. In contrast to ORCA3 in C. roseus, which needs only the GCC motif in the promoters of the alkaloid synthesis genes to induce their expression, ORC1 required the presence of both GCC-motif and G-box elements in the promoters of the tobacco nicotine biosynthesis genes for maximum transactivation. Correspondingly, combined application with the JA-inducible Nicotiana basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) factors that bind the G-box element in these promoters enhanced ORC1 action. Conversely, overaccumulation of JAZ repressor proteins that block bHLH activity reduced ORC1 functionality. Finally, the activity of both ORC1 and bHLH proteins was post-translationally upregulated by a JA-modulated phosphorylation cascade, in which a specific mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase, JA-factor stimulating MAPKK1 (JAM1), was identified. This study highlights the complexity of the molecular machinery involved in the regulation of tobacco alkaloid biosynthesis and provides mechanistic insights about its transcriptional regulators.

Benchmarking the CATMA Microarray. A Novel Tool forArabidopsis Transcriptome Analysis

Transcript profiling is crucial to study biological systems, and various platforms have been implemented to survey mRNAs at the genome scale. We have assessed the performance of the CATMA microarray designed for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) transcriptome analysis and compared it with the Agilent and Affymetrix commercial platforms. The CATMA array consists of gene-specific sequence tags of 150 to 500 bp, the Agilent (Arabidopsis 2) array of 60mer oligonucleotides, and the Affymetrix gene chip (ATH1) of 25mer oligonucleotide sets. We have matched each probe repertoire with the Arabidopsis genome annotation (The Institute for Genomic Research release 5.0) and determined the correspondence between them. Array performance was analyzed by hybridization with labeled targets derived from eight RNA samples made of shoot total RNA spiked with a calibrated series of 14 control transcripts. CATMA arrays showed the largest dynamic range extending over three to four logs. Agilent and Affymetrix arrays displayed a narrower range, presumably because signal saturation occurred for transcripts at concentrations beyond 1,000 copies per cell. Sensitivity was comparable for all three platforms. For Affymetrix GeneChip data, the RMA software package outperformed Microarray Suite 5.0 for all investigated criteria, confirming that the information provided by the mismatch oligonucleotides has no added value. In addition, taking advantage of replicates in our dataset, we conducted a robust statistical analysis of the platform propensity to yield false positive and false negative differentially expressed genes, and all gave satisfactory results. The results establish the CATMA array as a mature alternative to the Affymetrix and Agilent platforms.

Insertional mutagenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: isolation of a T-DNA-linked mutation that alters leaf morphology.

SummaryWe investigated the potential of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens T-DNA as an insertional mutagen in Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis lines transformed with different T-DNA vectors were generated using a leaf disc infection procedure adapted for efficient selection on either kanamycin or hygromycin medium. A standardized screening procedure was developed for the detection of recessive mutations in T2 populations of regenerated and/or transformed lines. Recessive mutations originating from the tissue culture procedure occurred at a low frequency — between 2% and 5%. Within 110 transformed lines that contained a total of about 150 T-DNA inserts, one recessive mutation, named pfl, cosegregated with a specific T-DNA copy. This pfl mutation mainly affected the morphology of the first seedling leaves under normal growth conditions and was mapped to chromosome 1. No recombination between the pfl locus and the kanamycin resistance marker on the T-DNA was detected when screening F2 and F3 populations of a mutant crossed to the wild type. The maximal genetic distance between the pfl locus and the kanamycin resistance gene, determined as 0.4±0.4 cMorgan, strongly suggests that the pfl mutation is induced by the insertion of the T-DNA. Our finding of one T-DNA-linked recessive mutation in 110 transgenic lines indicates that T-DNA can be used for mutagenization of the Arabidopsis genome under tissue culture conditions.

DRL1, a Homolog of the Yeast TOT4/KTI12 Protein, Has a Function in Meristem Activity and Organ Growth in Plants

The DEFORMED ROOTS AND LEAVES1 (DRL1) gene is single copy in the Arabidopsis genome, and based on overall amino acid similarity and conservation of functional domains, the DRL1 protein is homologous with yeast TOT4/KTI12. TOT4/KTI12 associates with Elongator, a multisubunit complex that binds the RNA polymerase II transcription elongation complex. Recessive mutations at the DRL1 locus caused defective organ formation indicative of disorganized shoot, inflorescence, flower, and root meristems. DRL1 is a putative ATP/GTP binding protein; in addition, calmodulin binding activity was demonstrated in vitro for the C terminus of the DRL1 protein. Phenotypic and genetic data position DRL1 relative to regulatory loci for leaf development, in which it acts early. We identified Arabidopsis homologs for the six Elongator components and hypothesize that DRL1 regulates transcription elongation through a putative plant Elongator. Upregulation of the ANGUSTIFOLIA transcript in the strong drl1-2 allele supports this model.

AUREOCHROME1a-Mediated Induction of the Diatom-Specific Cyclin dsCYC2 Controls the Onset of Cell Division in Diatoms (Phaeodactylum tricornutum)

Diatom cell division is controlled by light. In this work, the diatom-specific cyclin dsCYC2 is identified as a rate-limiting factor that controls the onset of the cell cycle in response to blue light. Strikingly, dsCYC2 expression is under the direct control of an aureochrome blue light receptor. Cell division in photosynthetic organisms is tightly regulated by light. Although the light dependency of the onset of the cell cycle has been well characterized in various phototrophs, little is known about the cellular signaling cascades connecting light perception to cell cycle activation and progression. Here, we demonstrate that diatom-specific cyclin 2 (dsCYC2) in Phaeodactylum tricornutum displays a transcriptional peak within 15 min after light exposure, long before the onset of cell division. The product of dsCYC2 binds to the cyclin-dependent kinase CDKA1 and can complement G1 cyclin-deficient yeast. Consistent with the role of dsCYC2 in controlling a G1-to-S light-dependent cell cycle checkpoint, dsCYC2 silencing decreases the rate of cell division in diatoms exposed to light-dark cycles but not to constant light. Transcriptional induction of dsCYC2 is triggered by blue light in a fluence rate-dependent manner. Consistent with this, dsCYC2 is a transcriptional target of the blue light sensor AUREOCHROME1a, which functions synergistically with the basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factor bZIP10 to induce dsCYC2 transcription. The functional characterization of a cyclin whose transcription is controlled by light and whose activity connects light signaling to cell cycle progression contributes significantly to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying light-dependent cell cycle onset in diatoms.

Leader sequence of a plant ribosomal protein gene with complementarity to the 18S rRNA triggers in vitro cap-independent translation

Cap‐independent translation (CIT) occurs at the leader sequences of uncapped plant viral RNAs, but also at a number of normally capped cellular mRNAs and has been correlated with sequence complementarity to 18S rRNA. The ribosomal protein S18 (RPS18) is a component of the small ribosomal subunit and is encoded by three gene copies (A, B, and C) in the Arabidopsis thaliana genome. The RPS18C mRNA was most abundant and contained a short 5′ untranslated region of 84 bp that is complementary to a novel putative interaction site at the 3′ end of the 18S rRNA. The RPS18C leader mediated CIT as demonstrated by dicistronic constructs consisting of luciferase and chloramphenicol acetyl transferase reporter genes in an in vitro wheat germ extract system. CIT was rapidly inhibited upon addition of an oligonucleotide that competed for the 18S rRNA site complementary to the RPS18C leader and interfered with polysome assembly at the transcript.

Transient Expression Assays in Tobacco Protoplasts

The sequence information generated through genome and transcriptome analysis from plant tissues has reached unprecedented sizes. Sequence homology-based annotations may provide hints for the possible function and roles of particular plant genes, but the functional annotation remains nonexistent or incomplete for many of them. To discover gene functions, transient expression assays are a valuable tool because they can be done more rapidly and at a higher scale than generating stably transformed tissues. Here, we describe a transient expression assay in protoplasts derived from suspension cells of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) for the study of the transactivation capacities of transcription factors. To enhance throughput and reproducibility, this method can be automated, allowing medium-throughput screening of interactions between large compendia of potential transcription factors and gene promoters.