Russell Gersten

Close to the Classroom is Close to the Bone: Coaching as a Means to Translate Research into Classroom Practice

This study explored the use of coaching as a way to bring research-based teaching practices into general education classrooms to improve the quality of reading instruction provided to students with learning disabilities. Project staff trained and mentored district special educators on the process of coaching. Qualitative research methodology was used to analyze the process of expert consultation and to better understand the process of change. Key issues that emerged included differences in the ways that special and general educators conceptualize teaching, the differing concerns and priorities between special and general educators, and the anxieties inherent in an observation and feedback process.

A Follow-up of Follow Through: The Later Effects of the Direct Instruction Model on Children in Fifth and Sixth Grades

The later effects of the Direct Instruction Follow Through program were assessed at five diverse sites. Low-income fifth and sixth graders who had completed the full 3 years of this first- through third-grade program were tested on the Metropolitan Achievement Test (Intermediate level) and the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT). Results were contrasted with those of children in local comparison groups using analysis of covariance procedures. Results indicated consistently strong, significant effects in WRAT reading scores (decoding), consistent effects in math problem solving and spelling, and moderate effects in most other academic domains. Students appeared to retain the knowledge and problem-solving skills they had mastered in the primary grades. However, without a continuing program, most students demonstrated losses when compared to the standardization sample of the achievement tests. Implications for improved instruction in the intermediate grades were discussed.

Instructional Strategies for Studying Content Area Texts in the Intermediate Grades.

THIS STUDY explored the efficacy of utilizing systematic instruction in teaching study skill strategies to fifth-grade students who had adequate reading (decoding) skills but demonstrated deficiencies in study skills. The method used was based on Robinsons (1941) SQ3R method, principles of task analysis, and direct instruction. Forty-five fifth-grade students with reading scores on a standardized achievement test of less than 1 year below grade level, and scores of less than 50% on two individual tests of study skills were randomly assigned to one of three samples: a treatment condition with systematic instruction in study skills, or one of two comparison conditions (independent seatwork on the same materials with feedback from teachers or no instruction). After 4 days of training, students were given a passage to study from a fifth-grade social studies text; they were then asked to retell important elements of the passage, and finally given a short answer test on important facts in the passage. Two weeks later, the testing process was repeated. Results indicated students receiving systematic instruction in study skills performed significantly higher on the factual short answer test on both occasions, F(1,42) = 47.91, p <.001. No significant differences were found on the retell measures. Several issues, including the use of free retell as measures of comprehension and the organization of textbooks, are discussed.

The Role of Domain Expertise in Beginning Special Education Teacher Quality

This study explored beginning special education teacher quality and the role that knowledge and skill for teaching reading plays in defining quality. The authors examined the relationship between beginning teachers knowledge for teaching reading and their classroom practices during reading instruction and, further, relationships between classroom practices and student achievement gains on various reading measures. Findings revealed special education beginning teachers were somewhat knowledgeable about teaching reading, but this knowledge did not contribute a significant portion of variance to classroom practice. Practices in classroom management, decoding practices, and providing explicit, engaging instruction accounted for a significant portion of variance in student reading gains. Implications for further research and the preparation and induction of beginning teachers are provided.

Rethinking the Regular Education Initiative Focus on the Classroom Teacher

The first section of this essay reviews the forces that led to the Regular Education Inititative. Next, relevant findings from the research on school reform, innovation and change, and staff development are synthesized. Based on this research, a conceptual framework is developed that enables the reader to understand the factors necessary to create the type of meaningful, sustained change in classroom practice required by the Regular Education Initiative.

Student Error Patterns as a Function of Curriculum Design Teaching Fractions to Remedial High School Students and High School Students with Learning Disabilities

This study evaluated the relative effectiveness of a curriculum that incorporated three empirically derived principles of curriculum design with a basal approach in teaching basic fractions concepts to students with learning disabilities and other low performing students in high school remedial math classes. The components of effective mathematics instruction articulated by Good and Grouws (1979) were implemented in both conditions. Thus, the curriculum design variables were isolated by keeping all other aspects of instruction constant. Results indicated that, although both programs were reasonably successful in teaching the material, the curriculum program utilizing sophisticated principles of curriculum design was significantly more effective. Mean scores on a curriculum-referenced test were 96.5% for that group and 82.3% for the basal group. Secondary analyses of item clusters revealed that areas of weakness in the performance of the basal group could be directly linked to hypothesized flaws in its curriculum design.

Teaching Problem Solving Through Computer Simulations

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a computer simulation in enhancing student learning in a unit of health. This study involved 30 mildly handicapped students who were randomly assigned to one of two instructional groups: (a) structured teaching and (b) a combination of structured teaching and a computer simulation. Students were taught for 12 consecutive days. The first half of each day’s lesson followed effective teaching practices. The second half was (a) a computer simulation or (b) traditional enrichment and application exercises. Following the last day of instruction, students were tested on basic facts, concepts, and health problem-solving skills. Posttest results indicated significant differences on basic facts and concepts that were reinforced by the simulation (p < .01). These differences were retained on a maintenance test given 2 weeks after the posttest. The most significant differences were on the test that measured problem-solving skills (p < .001). The results show that the combination of structured teaching and a computer simulation was effective in teaching not only factual-level knowledge, but higher cognitive skills as well.

Direct Instruction Research The Third Decade

Current research on direct instruction is reviewed with a particular emphasis on two strands—studies of instructional design and technology and research on effective staff development. The latter research suggests that three components are essential to the position of instructional supervisor or resource consultant, including a working knowledge of the research on effective teaching and the ability to effectively coach teachers in the classroom setting. Extensive training is required for individuals to become competent in these components. The technology research indicates that the same instructional variables that enhance learner performance with traditional written materials appear to enhance learning with computer-assisted instruction and interactive videodisc instruction. Several examples of technology applications are presented. The article concludes with a discussion of future directions in direct instruction research.

Direct Instruction With Special Education Students: A Review of Evaluation Research

Studies evaluating the effectiveness of direct instruction curricula and teaching procedures are reviewed and, in some instances, critiqued. The six studies indicate that direct instruction tends to produce higher academic gains for handicapped children than traditional approaches. They also suggest that some of the more subtle principles of direct instruction—such as insistence on complete (rather than partial) mastery of each step in the learning process—are important. The author contends that future research should more carefully measure program implementation and begin to look more precisely at specific instructional variables. Suggestions for appropriate research designs are presented.

Effects of Instructional Design Variables on Vocabulary Acquisition of LD Students: A Study of Computer-Assisted Instruction.

Two computer-assisted instructional vocabulary programs were used to teach definitions of 50 words to 25 learning disabled high school students. These students were matched on pretest scores and then randomly assigned to one of two computer-assisted instructional programs. The major differences between the programs were (a) the size of the teaching sets and (b) the procedures for cumulative review. One program provided teaching and practice exercises on small sets of words and cumulative review exercises on words the students learned in the program. The other program provided exercises on a large set of 25 words at a time and no cumulative review. Students received computerassisted vocabulary instruction for a maximum of eleven 20-minute sessions. The major finding was that significantly more students who were taught with the small teaching set program reached mastery within 11 sessions than students in the comparison group. Students in both programs learned as much (as measured by the criterion-referenced test) and retained as much, as measured by the maintenance test. Yet one group learned the material more efficiently. No significant differences were demonstrated on two transfer measures, an oral test of word meanings and a passage comprehension test.