Russell Hawkins

Self-efficacy: A predictor but not a cause of behavior

The concept of self-efficacy, as expounded by Bandura as part of his Social Cognitive Theory, has made considerable impact in the psychological literature. It is argued that self-efficacy is a useful hypothetical construct for predicting behavior, but it has no valid claim to being a cause of behavior. Claims for self-efficacy as a causal agent have failed to acknowledge that self-efficacy itself is an epi-phenomenon of performance. Conventional learning theory explanations of observed performance levels are shown to be more parsimonious than accounts relying on the concept of self-efficacy.

Follow-up data on the effectiveness of New Zealand's national school based child protection program

In 1987, in response to concerns relating to the high incidence of (reported) child sexual abuse, the Ministry of Education and New Zealand Policy jointly introduced a national school-based personal safety program, Keeping Ourselves Safe. In December 1990, 252 children were interviewed in eight primary schools, selected as representative of the ethnic, economic, and social diversity of New Zealand society (Briggs 1991). The interview schedule was designed on problem-solving lines to establish whether children could identify and respond safely to a wide range of potentially unsafe situations. One year later, 117 of the children were available for interview using the same questionnaire. Children exposed to Keeping Ourselves Safe had retained and increased their safety strategies during that time. The variables of gender, age, race, and academic level did not affect improvement but the number of initial gains by children with highly committed teachers was almost double the number achieved by teachers classified as having low levels of commitment. Prior to using the program, children from low socioeconomic groups had significantly lower knowledge and skill levels than their middle-class contemporaries. Middle-class children also gained more from the program. The difference in gains achieved is explained in terms of parental participation in the school program.

Self-efficacy: A cause of debate

In response to a paper (Hawkins, 1992) arguing that self-efficacy is a predictor but not a cause of behavior, Bandura (1995) has raised a series of counter arguments. None of these counter arguments seem sufficient to retreat from the claim that self-efficacy is not a true cause of behavior. The present paper reaffirms the position that self-efficacy is a useful concept when used as a descriptive metaphor. Examples from applied psychology are raised to justify this position. Discourse analysis is introduced as one approach which is able to circumvent the debate about the reality or nonreality of mental entities.

A Comparison of Variable-Dose Patient-Controlled Analgesia with Fixed-Dose Patient-Controlled Analgesia

We examined the effect on the quality of analgesia and side effects of increasing the patient control component of morphine patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) by offering the patient a choice of bolus dose sizes. Using a three-button hand piece, patient could choose between 0.5-, 1.0-, and 1.5-mg boluses of morphine (variable-dose PCA, VDPCA). Successful demands were delivered by a modified Graseby 3400 Anaesthesia Pump controlled by a Toshiba T1900 computer. This system was compared with conventional fixed-dose PCA (FDPCA) (1.0 mg of morphine) delivered by a Graseby 3300 PCA Pump. Both treatment groups had a 5-min lockout interval. Sixty patients were randomly assigned to receive either VDPCA or FDPCA after major abdominal gynecological surgery or hip or knee arthroplasty. Treatment groups did not differ in their duration of PCA therapy, total morphine consumption, or time spent with mild or severe oxyhemoglobin desaturation. There were no differences in their ease of controlling pain, satisfaction with pain control, experience of pain on movement, quality of sleep, severity of nausea, or incidence of vomiting. Although the more complex VDPCA technique provides adequate postoperative analgesia, it does not offer any advantage over conventional FDPCA. (Anesth Analg 1996;83:1060-4)

Variable-dose patient-controlled analgesia A preliminary report

One size of patient‐controlled analgesia demand dose does not suit all patients after surgery. We have constructed a new patient‐controlled analgesia system (variable‐dose patient‐controlled analgesia) in which patients have a choice of demand dose sizes. In an initial trial, patients could choose between 0.5, 1.0 or 1.5mg morphine. Patients readily understood the system and were all satisfied’ (n = 1) or‘very satisfied’ (n = 9) with the system. Only two patients sought‘complete relief from pain, most reported seeking’ moderate relief. All patients obtained‘a lot of relief or‘complete relief with this patient‐controlled analgesia system. This preliminary experience suggests that variable dose patient‐controlled analgesia warrants further investigation and comparison with conventional patient‐controlled analgesia.

Follow up Study of Children of 5‐8 years Using Child Protection Programmes in Australia and New Zealand

A previous study (Briggs, 1991) described two different types of child protection programme: the American Protective Behaviours programme promoted by some Australian and British Police and used in pre‐schools and schools and Keeping Ourselves Safe which is the national school based child protection curriculum designed and supported by New Zealand Police in partnership with the Ministry of Education. The present paper reports on a follow up study which reveals the importance of providing young children with a school based protection programme which is developmentally appropriate in terms of language and concepts.

Protecting boys from the risk of sexual abuse

Relatively little is known about the sexual victimisation of male children. Because more girls report sexual abuse than boys, it has been widely assumed that boys are less vulnerable or that their abuse is less damaging than the abuse of girls. As a result, child protection programmes have been directed towards the protection of females. Interviews with 194 adult male survivors of sexual abuse suggest that the victimisation of boys is under‐recognised, under‐reported and that boys are not adequately protected by parents and current child protection curriculum. Subjects identified their sexual curiosity and ignorance as the primary contributors to their victimisation. Non‐incest victims also believed that the lack of physical affection from their fathers contributed to their vulnerability. Strategies to facilitate the recognition and reporting of sexual abuse by boys warrant immediate attention.

The role of the patient in the management of post surgical pain

Abstract An experiment was conducted to test the idea that patients do not have the necessary knowledge about pain relief to contribute effectively to their own pain management through such strategies as being more assertive in requesting analgesia. When patients were provided with video-taped information about available pain control techniques, together with a rationale for the minimisation of pain and encouragement to request analgesia as required, they did not achieve significantly less pain than control groups. Since patients were well satisfied with pain levels substantially greater than zero, it is argued that the conventional wisdom that high pain scores indicate that post surgical pain is badly treated should be re-assessed.

Early childhood experiences of men sexually abused as children

A study which reported information obtained from male child molesters and from the male victims of child abuse has recently been completed. When the results of this study were released, they attracted considerable media attention. Unfortunately the media reports were often inaccurate. The page 1 headline on the South Australian edition of the Australian (Powell, 6/1/95), for example said ‘One in two molesters cites abuse by Catholics’. This is incorrect. Furthermore, the media reports tended to unduly focus on issues to do with abuse by religious authorities and they failed to provide detail about other aspects of the study. In order to correct misinformation spread by the media, we present a short description of the study.

The Role of Psychologists in the South Australian Fitness to Stand Trial Process

In South Australia, fitness to stand trial requirements are embodied in the Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935, Part 8A, Division 3, which follows the R v. Presser findings. Specialist reports and opinion are an integral part of determination of a defendants fitness for trial. In undertaking this review, publically available case law was scrutinized to provide insight into the practices of South Australian psychologists involved in the determination of mental fitness for trial processes. The AustLII database was used to identify relevant cases. Thirty-three cases were identified for inclusion. Cases were analysed for themes relevant to forensic psychology, including the methods and processes used to make recommendations to the court. Findings suggested that often the judges accepted the professional fitness opinions provided to them without question; however, judges occasionally provided important and pointed guidance to the professionals when the information provided did not meet the courts needs.