Ruth A. Calef

Verbal transformations of "stabilized" taboo and neutral words.

To test the “arousal” hypothesis that physiological and/or psychological “arousal” maintains the perception of an auditory stimulus, a number of taboo and neutral words were repeated orally for 14 male and 14 female college students. Neutral words gave rise to more verbal transformation than taboo words.

Facilitation of Group Desensitization of Test Anxiety

To enhance the effects of group desensitization in the treatment of test anxiety, a modified desensitization procedure was used, calling for pairing a stimulus (tone) with relaxation training, then presenting the stimulus while Ss completed the test-anxiety hierarchy. 60 college freshmen with high test anxiety were divided into 4 groups of 15 Ss each. One group received the modified group-desensitization procedure while a second group received conventional group desensitization. Two control conditions were included: presentation of a tone while completing the test-anxiety hierarchy, and an attention-placebo condition. The modified desensitization procedure was more effective than conventional desensitization and the control conditions.

Verbal transformation as a function of boredom susceptibility, attention maintenance, and exposure time

Sixteen high-boredom-susceptible (HBS) and 16 low-boredom-susceptible (LBS) college students recorded word distortions on a structured data sheet (i.e., numbered) or on a nonstructured data sheet, resulting in groups of 8 college students who were presented with six neutral words for 6 min each. In the structured situation, the LBS subjects produced significantly more verbal transformations (i.e., word distortions) than HBS subjects, but in the nonstructured situation, there was a trend for HBS subjects to produce a higher verbal transformation rate than that shown by LBS subjects. In addition, all subjects produced significantly more verbal transformations in the last 3 min as compared to the first 3 min of exposure time. Attention and arousal notions were considered to interpret these findings.

A human analogue of discrimination contrast

In the present study, one group of human Ss received differential reward conditioning for accurately tracing numbered-nonnumbered star patterns, whereas a second and third control group received either just small or large reward in both discriminanda, respectively. The present study replicated the findings of previous animal contrast studies in that a significant negative S—contrast effect, as well as a trend towards a negative S+ contrast effect, was shown.

Negative contrast as a function of reinforcement location and consistent vs. varied reward magnitude

Subsequent to receiving small reward magnitude in the straight runway during Stage 1, rats were given consistently large magnitude of reward or varied large and small reward during placement trials (Stage 2) in a housing cage or in the goalbox. During Stage 3, only animals receiving consistently large magnitude of reward in goalbox placement trials showed a successive negative contrast effect. The results were supportive of frustration theory.

Effects of unsolvable anagrams on retention

During Phase 1, 51 college students received 40 nonsense syllables to memorize (free recall). During Phase 2, 17 students received unsolvable anagrams (Group USA), 17 students received solvable anagrams (Group SA), and 17 received a blank piece of paper on which to write an autobiographical essay (Group E). During Phase 3, Group USA recalled significantly fewer Phase 1 nonsense syllables than did Groups SA and E, both of which recalled approximately the same number of nonsense syllables. The results support previous animal research, which shows that uncontrollable tasks interfere with the retention of a previously learned response.

Positive discrimination contrast with delay of reward or low drive

In the present study, six groups of 10 albino rats each were given differential conditioning training in parallel alleys differing only in brightness. The results showed a positive S+ contrast effect when 20-sec delay of reinforcement or lowered drive (12-h deprivation) were used to lower responding, but a negative S+ contrast effect when subjects received both immediate reinforcement and 23-h deprivation. No present theory can adequately explain both effects.

Perseveration of the partial reinforcement effect in extinction with rats over two phases of extinction and two stages of continuous reinforcement.

One group of 10 male albino rats was given partial reinforcement while the other 10 rats received continuous reinforcement in a straight alley. Subjects then experienced five consecutive stages of Extinction 1, Continuous Reinforcement 1, Extinction 2, Continuous Reinforcement 2, and finally, Extinction 3. Analysis showed the partial reinforcement effect in extinction was sustained over two stages of extinction and two stages of continuous reinforcement, since subjects receiving partial reinforcement ran faster than rats given continuous reinforcement throughout all three of the extinction periods. The results seem to support those of Amsels (1967) and Capaldis (1967) theoretical formulations of the partial reinforcement effect in extinction.

Effects of Preshift Small Magnitude of Reward Received during Goalbox Placements on the Negative Contrast Effect

During preshift, one experimental group of rats was given a large magnitude of food reward following a traversal of a straight alley and during a goalbox placement, while the other experimental group was given a small reward during goalbox placement and a large reward following a run. During postshift, all experimental groups were given a small reward of food following a traversal down the runway and during a goalbox placement. A control group was maintained on small reward during placements and following a traversal throughout the study. Only the group who received preshift large reward during placement and following a runway response ran slower to small reward during postshift than the control group maintained on small reward (negative contrast effect).

DELAY OF REINFORCEMENT EFFECTS: TIMING OF REINFORCEMENT OR NARROW GOAL-BOX CONFINEMENT

The present experiment investigated whether narrow goal-box confinement in studies of delay of reinforcement in the runway may have had aversive or punishing effects. Analysis showed no difference in performance between groups of rats who were either confined in a narrow goal-box or a large compartment while receiving their delay of reinforcement. The results suggest that narrow goal-box confinement does not have aversive characteristics.