Ruth A. Ervin

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior Increases Resistance to Extinction: Clinical Demonstration, Animal Modeling, and Clinical Test of One Solution

Basic research with pigeons on behavioral momentum suggests that differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) can increase the resistance of target behavior to change. This finding suggests that clinical applications of DRA may inadvertently increase the persistence of target behavior even as it decreases its frequency. We conducted three coordinated experiments to test whether DRA has persistence-strengthening effects on clinically significant target behavior and then tested the effectiveness of a possible solution to this problem in both a nonhuman and clinical study. Experiment 1 compared resistance to extinction following baseline rates of reinforcement versus higher DRA rates of reinforcement in a clinical study. Resistance to extinction was substantially greater following DRA. Experiment 2 tested a rat model of a possible solution to this problem. Training an alternative response in a context without reinforcement of the target response circumvented the persistence-strengthening effects of DRA. Experiment 3 translated the rat model into a novel clinical application of DRA. Training an alternative response with DRA in a separate context resulted in lower resistance to extinction than employing DRA in the context correlated with reinforcement of target behavior. The value of coordinated bidirectional translational research is discussed.

Functional assessment of behaviors related to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder : Linking assessment to intervention design

A variety of behavioral interventions are effective in ameliorating the symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children. Unfortunately, the diagnosis of ADHD does not provide clinicians with sufficient information to determine specific interventions to use with an individual child. Functional assessment procedures have been successfully used to design effective treatment plans for individuals exhibiting symptoms of a variety of behavior disorders. An overview of functional assessment procedures is provided and evidence that such procedures can lead to effective treatment decisions for children with ADHD is reviewed. Finally, the advantages and limitations of presently available functional assessment methods for clinical use in the treatment of ADHD are discussed.

Evaluating Assessment-based Intervention Strategies for Students with ADHD and Comorbid Disorders within the Natural Classroom Context.

The authors provide three case examples of the evaluation of assessment-based intervention strategies within the natural classroom context for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders. For each of the participants, several hypotheses were generated concerning potential environmental correlates of undesirable behavior based on information obtained during student and teacher interviews as well as descriptive observations. The utility of these assessment-based, nonintrusive intervention strategies was evaluated within the natural context and ongoing routine of the classroom using an alternating-treatments design. For each participant, results demonstrated that assessment-based environmental modifications can decrease problematic classroom behaviors. In addition, results of the hypothesis testing suggested feasible and effective classroom intervention strategies.

Agreement of function across methods used in school-based functional assessment with preadolescent and adolescent students.

As we begin to apply functional assessment procedures in mainstream educational settings, there is a need to explore options for identifying behavior function that are not only effective but efficient and practical for school personnel to employ. Attempts to simplify the functional assessment process are evidenced by the development of informant assessment measures (e.g., interviews, rating scales). In this study, the agreement (i.e., on relative rankings and primary function) across sources of information regarding behavior function was examined for 19 students in a middle school setting. These measures included teacher ratings, student ratings, student interviews, observer ratings, and conditional probabilities. In addition, for 1 student, whether information obtained through these sources was consistent with that obtained through a brief analog analysis of function was examined. Results indicated low agreement regarding rank order of behavior function and on primary function across all sources of information.

Employing Descriptive Functional Assessment Methods to Assess Low-Rate, High-Intensity Behaviors A Case Example

Low-rate, high-intensity behaviors, such as aggression and violence, are not uncommon in school settings. This study evaluated the utility of descriptive methods (e.g., record reviews, interviews) of functional assessment in documenting behavior function for low-rate, high-intensity behaviors. The participant, a 13-year-old boy with ADHD, exhibited low rates of aggression toward peers in school. A comprehensive record review of archival data sources (i.e., office referrals, previous school records) indicated aggression was more likely to occur during unstructured activities (e.g., recess), primarily following negative peer approaches (e.g., teasing, name-calling, or physical aggression). Descriptive information and observations led to the development and selection of potential intervention strategies. Direct observational data indicated that the peer buddy intervention was effective in reducing the number of inappropriate responses to negative peer approaches, as well as the number of aggressive incidents. Implications for utilizing descriptive data to document predictor variables and maintaining variables for low-rate, high-intensity behaviors are discussed.

The Persistence-Strengthening Effects of DRA: An Illustration of Bidirectional Translational Research.

We summarize a series of bidirectional research studies that demonstrate the persistence-strengthening effects of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior on problem behavior. We model a possible solution to this problem with rats followed by replication with a human clinical population. The importance of coordinated basic and applied research to stimulate new behavioral technologies is emphasized.

Females and Males as Participants in School Psychology Research: Data from Four Journals over 15 Years.

Overall, 35 percent of the articles published in Journal of School Psychology, School Psychology International, School Psychology Quarterly and School Psychology Review from 1985 through 1999 that used participants failed to report whether they were female or male. Three, six and 56 percent of articles with participants used only females, only males, and both females and males, respectively. The failure of many articles to specify the sex of participants is a potentially serious problem. Unless the sex of participants is reported, one cannot ascertain to whom results should generalize or whether the sex of participants affects the variable under investigation. For these and other reasons, we recommend that researchers routinely specify how many of their participants are males and how many are females. This information requires little space to report and in most cases is easy to obtain.

Moving from a Model Demonstration Project to a Statewide Initiative in Michigan: Lessons Learned from Merging Research-Practice Agendas to Address Reading and Behavior

Ruth A. Ervin, PhD, is an Associate Professor of School Psychology and Special Education at University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. ruth.ervin@ubc.ca Elizabeth Schaughency, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. schaughe@psy.otago.ac.nz Steven D. Goodman is a Teacher Consultant at the Ottawa Area Intermediate School District, Holland, Michigan. sgoodman@oaisd.org Margaret T. McGlinchey is an Educational Consultant at Kalamazoo Regional Educational Service Agency, Kalamazoo Michigan. mmcglinc@kresanet.org Amy Matthews, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Grand Valley State University, Allandale, Michigan. matthewa@gvsu.edu

Functional Behavioral Assessment of Nonverbal Behavior

In this chapter the authors describe how functional behavioral assessment (FBA) procedures can be used to identify the function of various behaviors and the relation between FBAs and related interventions that have successfully reduced inappropriate behaviors. Using the principles of FBA it is possible to identify natural environmental contingencies that maintain the behavior of individuals who lack the verbal skills to communicate information about the function of their behavior (e.g., nonverbal students). These data can then be used to develop interventions based on within-subject data. Although FBA procedures are based on sound theory, the development and evaluation of such procedures is in its infancy and future research is needed to improve the quality of these procedures so that educators can efficiently determine the function of target behaviors. Additionally, combining FBA and treatment effectiveness research may allow researchers to develop function-by-treatment models of linking assessment to intervention, thereby allowing educational professionals to develop more effective prevention and remediation procedures across subjects, based on the assessed function of target behaviors.