Ruth Singer

Explaining the Linguistic Diversity of Sahul Using Population Models

Areal and genealogical links between the diverse ancient languages of Australia and New Guinea are investigated using a phylogenetic clustering method adopted from population genetics.

What practices and ideologies support small-scale multilingualism?: A case study of Warruwi Community, northern Australia

Abstract At Warruwi, a remote Australian Indigenous community, people use a range of Indigenous languages on a daily basis. Adults speak three to eight Indigenous languages and these high levels of multilingualism are out of step with current trends which see most Australian Indigenous communities shifting to a single variety be it a variety of English, a contact variety or a traditional Indigenous language. The three Indigenous languages most widely spoken at Warruwi are quite dissimilar as they belong to separate language families. This article discusses three characteristics of language use at Warruwi that are likely to play a role in supporting the levels of multilingualism found there: the diversity of individual linguistic repertoires, receptive multilingual practices whereby interlocutors address one another in different languages and language ideologies that are quite different to those found elsewhere. Characteristics of multilingualism at Warruwi are compared with those reported for other communities with small-scale multilingualism. Francois’ (2012) concept of egalitarian multilingualism is used as a starting point for the exploration of models of small-scale multilingualism.

Do nominal classifiers mediate selectional restrictions? An investigation of the function of semantically based nominal classifiers in Mawng (Iwaidjan, Australian)

Abstract This article argues that the primary function of nominal classifiers which have a strong semantic basis is to mediate selectional restrictions. Nominal classifiers do part of the work usually done by selectional restrictions; selecting the relevant sense of the verb and narrowing down the range of possible arguments. In the Australian language Mawng (Iwaidjan, Australia), gender agreement in the verb provides good evidence for the role of nominal classification in mediating selectional restrictions. Mawng verb agreement distinguishes five genders and plays a key role in selecting the relevant sense of the verb. In fact, sometimes gender agreement does not match the gender of the corresponding argument but instead reflects the gender agreement usually found with the relevant verb sense. Typological work on nominal classification systems has focused on their morphosyntax and their reference tracking function. However, nominal classification systems with a strong semantic basis play an important role in constructing meaning by mediating the semantic interactions between verbs and nouns. Reference tracking is often portrayed as the primary function of nominal classification universally. However, in addition to tracking existing referents, nominal classification can be important in creating new referents and modifying existing referents.

The Dynamics of Nominal Classification: Productive and Lexicalised Uses of Gender Agreement in Mawng

The use of grammatical gender in the Australian language Mawng calls into question prevailing ideas about the functions of nominal classification systems. Mawng’s gender system has a strong semantic basis and plays an important role in the construction of meaning in discourse. Gender agreement in verbs is frequently lexicalized, creating idioms called lexicalised agreement verbs that are structurally similar to noun-verb idioms. This book will be of interest to anyone interested in nominal classification or cross-linguistic approaches to idioms.

Typologising idiomaticity: Noun-verb idioms and their relations

Abstract English noun-verb idioms such as spill the beans combine a verb with a noun which appears to be an argument but does not refer to an actual discourse participant. Noun-verb idioms are likely to be universal but there are two related types of idioms which are not. In the first, referred to as idiomatic noun-incorporation, the argument-like element is a noun which is incorporated into a verb. An example is the Bininj Gun-wok expression -dalk-ngun die, which combines the verb -ngun eat with the noun -dalk- grass. In the second, the argument-like element is a bound pronominal in the verb with fixed gender features. An example is the Mawng verb -marrajpu walk, which always has Land gender object agreement, although no corresponding participant can be identified. The latter type is referred to as lexicalised agreement verbs and described in some detail. It is argued that the three types of constructions, referred to as verb-argument idioms, form a valid crosslinguistic category about which typological generalisations can be made. This leads to a discussion about how less productive aspects of language might be included in language descriptions and typological research.

The impact of national standardized literacy and numeracy testing on children and teaching staff in remote Australian Indigenous communities

All educational testing is intended to have consequences, which are assumed to be beneficial, but tests may also have unintended, negative consequences (Messick, 1989). The issue is particularly important in the case of large-scale standardized tests, such as Australia’s National Assessment Program - Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), the intended benefits of which are increased accountability and improved educational outcomes. The NAPLAN purpose is comparable to that of other state and national ‘core skills’ testing programs, which evaluate cross-sections of populations in order to compare results between population sub-groupings. Such comparisons underpin ‘accountability’ in the era of population-level testing. This study investigates the impact of NAPLAN testing on one population grouping that is prominent in the NAPLAN results’ comparisons and public reporting: children in remote Indigenous communities. A series of interviews with principals and teachers documents informants’ first-hand experiences of the use and effects of NAPLAN in schools. In the views of most participants, the language and content of the test instruments, the nature of the test engagement, and the test washback have negative impacts on students and staff, with little benefit in terms of the usefulness of the test data. The primary issue is the fact that meaningful participation in the tests depends critically on proficiency in Standard Australian English (SAE) as a first language. This study contributes to the broader discussion of how reform-targeted standardized testing for national populations affects sub-groups who are not treated equitably by the test instrument or reporting for accountability purposes. It highlights a conflict between consequential validity and the notion of accountability that drives reform-targeted testing.