Ryann Crowley

Observations of the middle school environment: The context for student behavior beyond the classroom

This article describes the use of an observation system to measure middle-school staff practices, environment characteristics, and student behavior in the school common areas. Data were collected at baseline from 18 middle schools participating in a randomized controlled trial of school-wide Positive Behavior Support. The observations were reliable and showed sensitivity to differences between school settings and between schools. Multilevel models with students nested in schools were used to examine the associations of staff practices and the school environment with student behavior. Less effective behavior management and more staff criticism, graffiti, and percentage of low-income students were associated with student problem behaviors. Greater use of effective behavior management and positive attention, and fewer low-income students were associated with positive student behavior. The use of data-based feedback to schools for intervention planning and monitoring is illustrated. Implications for school-wide efforts to improve student behavior in middle schools are discussed. This article reports on an observation system for measuring middle-school staff practices, environment characteristics, and student behavior in school common areas. The observation system was developed to measure the outcomes of school-wide interventions aimed at improving middle-school practices and environmental characteristics in an effort to decrease problem behaviors and increase positive behaviors in middle-school students. Almost two thirds of aggressive incidents at school occur outside of the classroom in a school common area (Lockwood, 1997). Middle-school students feel particularly unsafe in school areas that are lacking adult supervision (Astor, Meyer, & Pitner, 2001). The observation system therefore focuses on common areas of the school―places where students spend time before and after school starts, during passing times between classes, and during school breaks―such as hallways, the cafeteria, outdoor areas, the gym or game room, and school entryways and bus areas. The aims of this article are to describe the observation system procedures, reliability, and sensitivity to detect differences and to examine associations of observed staff practices and school environment characteristics with student behavior. The use of such descriptive and correlational information from baseline data can inform researchers and educators about potential mechanisms of school-wide efforts for student behavior improvement.

Psychosocial Correlates of Physical and Sedentary Activities of Early Adolescent Youth

This study examines physical and sedentary activities of early adolescent boys and girls using Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA), a method that can link mood and behaviors in specific social situations. Twenty-seven assessments were collected across 7 days from 82 participating adolescents, three times in seventh grade and one time in eighth grade. Assessments were completed during nonschool hours when youth had “free time.” Gender differences, longitudinal trends, and associations of physical activities (PA) and small screen recreation (SSR) with moods and peer presence are examined. Boys were engaged in PA more than girls. Patterns of PA differed by gender; boys significantly decreased PA from seventh to eighth grade, whereas girls had increased PA only during the spring. PA was associated with happier mood and was more likely to occur in the presence of peers. SSR significantly increased from seventh grade to eighth grade for both boys and girls. SSR occurred more when youth were alone and was not associated with mood. Neither PA nor SSR was more likely to occur during weekdays or weekends. Implications for intervention efforts to increase PA in youth are discussed.

Randomized Trial of Nicotine Lozenges and Phone Counseling for Smokeless Tobacco Cessation

INTRODUCTION Relatively few treatment programs have been developed specifically for smokeless tobacco (ST) users who want to quit. Their results suggest that self-help materials, telephone counseling, and nicotine lozenges are efficacious. This study provides the first direct examination of the separate and combined effects of telephone counseling and lozenges. METHODS We recruited ST users online (N = 1067) and randomly assigned them to 1 of 3 conditions: (a) a lozenge group (n = 356), who were mailed 4-mg nicotine lozenges; (b) a coach calls group (n = 354), who were offered 3 coaching phone calls; or (c) a lozenge + coach calls group (N = 357), who received both lozenges and coaching calls. Additionally, all participants were mailed self-help materials. Self-reported tobacco abstinence was assessed at 3 and 6 months after randomization. RESULTS Complete-case and intention-to-treat (ITT) analyses for all tobacco abstinence were performed at 3 months, 6 months, and both 3 and 6 months (repeated point prevalence). ITT analyses revealed a highly similar result: the lozenge + coach calls condition was significantly more successful in encouraging tobacco abstinence than either the lozenge group or the coach calls group, which did not differ. CONCLUSIONS Combining nicotine lozenges and phone counseling significantly increased tobacco abstinence rates compared with either intervention alone, whereas coach calls and lozenges were equivalent. The study confirms the high tobacco abstinence rates for self-help ST cessation interventions and offers guidance to providing tobacco treatment to ST users.

Influence of parent–youth relationship, parental monitoring, and parent substance use on adolescent substance use onset.

The quality of parent–child relationships likely influences many decisions and behaviors made by early adolescents, including their alcohol and marijuana use. We examined how parent–youth relationship quality, parental monitoring, and parent substance use were associated with initiation of alcohol use, binge drinking, and marijuana use by 400 adolescents by the spring of 8th grade (ages 13–14), and changes in initiation through 9th grade (assessed 3 times; fall, winter, and spring). We measured both parent and adolescent report of parent–youth relationship quality and parental monitoring, expecting that both perspectives would uniquely contribute. Discrete Time Survival models showed that youth report of both a poorer parent–youth relationship and lower parental monitoring were associated with alcohol use, binge drinking, and marijuana use onset. Parent binge drinking also predicted youth alcohol onset and parent report of poor quality relationship predicted marijuana onset. Youth report of a poor relationship with parents was a stronger predictor for girls than boys on their alcohol use onset, and youth report of parental monitoring was more protective for girls than boys for both alcohol and marijuana use onset. Implications for preventing use of these substances during early and mid-adolescence are discussed.

Legalization of Recreational Marijuana and Community Sales Policy in Oregon: Impact on Adolescent Willingness and Intent to Use, Parent Use, and Adolescent Use.

Studies investigating the impact of medical marijuana legalization have found no significant changes in adolescent use. In one of the few studies focused on recreational marijuana, we investigated how recreational marijuana legalization and community sales policy influenced factors that likely impact youth use (youth willingness and intent to use, parent use) as well as youth use. Legalization of recreational marijuana in Oregon coincided with our study on adolescent substance use. Cohort 1 transitioned from 8th to 9th grade prior to legalization and Cohort 2 made this transition during legalization (N = 444; 53% female). Communities were allowed to opt out of sales. Multivariate linear regression models estimated the impact of legalization and community sales policy on changes in attitudes and parent use (2 time points 1 year apart). Zero-inflated Poisson growth curve models estimated the effects on initial levels and rate of change from 8th through 9th grade (4 time points). In communities opting out of sales, the prior-to-legalization cohort was less likely to increase their willingness and intent to use marijuana, and the legalization cohort was more likely to increase intent to use. For youth who used marijuana, legalization was associated with increased use, and those in communities opting out of sales had greater growth in marijuana use. Community policy appears to impact youth attitudes toward, and use of, marijuana. Results suggest that legalization of recreational marijuana did not increase marijuana use for youth who did not use marijuana but did increase use in youth who were already using.

Providing Opportunities to Learn in Home-Based Child Care Settings: Observations of Learning Contexts and Behavior

ABSTRACT Research Findings: This observation study investigated the prevalence and correlates of learning contexts provided to preschool-age children in 133 registered child care homes in below-average-income neighborhoods in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. On average, 30% of the observed proportion of time was spent in structured teacher-led activities, 51% in free-choice activities, 10% in routine activities, 1% in watching video/TV, and 7% in transition. Home-based child care providers gave significantly more positive recognition during structured teacher-led activities, and children engaged in more prosocial behavior during free-choice time. Directives and noncompliance occurred more often during transitions. A higher child-to-caregiver ratio was associated with more time spent in free-choice time, and caregiver experience and education were not associated with the time spent in specific learning contexts. Practice or Policy: Similar to preschool and center-based child care, current practice in home-based child care is to offer a mix of structured teacher-led and free-choice activities. To facilitate young children’s skill development within these learning activities typically offered, it is necessary to increase research and provide empirically based professional development opportunities relevant to home-based child care settings. Attention to home-based child care will likely reach many young children and be particularly beneficial for those in low-income households.