S. Carey

Experimental constraints on pre-eruptive water contents and changing magma storage prior to explosive eruptions of Mount St Helens volcano

Compositionally diverse dacitic magmas have erupted from Mount St Helens over the last 4000 years. Phase assemblages and their compositions in these dacites provide information about the composition of the pre-eruptive melt, the phases in equilibrium with that melt and the magmatic temperature. From this information pre-eruptive pressures and water fugacities of many of the dacites have been inferred. This was done by conducting hydrothermal experiments at 850°C and a range of pressures and water fugacities and combining the results with those from experiments at temperatures of 780 and 920°C, to cover the likely range in equilibration conditions of the dacites. Natural phase assemblages and compositions were compared with the experimental results to infer the most likely conditions for the magmas prior to eruption. Water contents disolved in the melts of the dacites were then estimated from the inferred conditions. Water contents in the dacites have varied greatly, from 3.7 to 6.5 wt.%, in the last 4000 years. Between 4000 and about 3000 years ago the dacites tended to be water saturated and contained 5.5 to 6.5 wt.% water. Since then, however, the dacites have been significantly water-undersaturated and contained less than 5.0 wt.% water. These dacites have tended to be hotter and more mafic, and andesitic and basaltic magmas have erupted. These changes can be explained by variable amounts of mixing between felsic dacite and basalt, to produce hotter, drier and more mafic dacites and andesites. The magma storage region of the dacitic magmas has also varied significantly during the 4000 years, with shifts to shallower levels in the crust occurring within very short time periods, possibly even two years. These shifts may be related to fracturing of overlying roof rock as a result of magma with-drawal during larger volume eruptions.

Pyroclastic flows and surges over water: an example from the 1883 Krakatau eruption

Pyroclastic deposits from the 1883 eruption of Krakatau are described from areas northeast of the volcano on the islands of Sebesi, Sebuku, and Lagoendi, and the southeast coast of Sumatra. Massive and poorly stratified units formed predominantly from pyroclastic flows and surges that traveled over the sea for distances up to 80 km. Granulometric and lithologic characteristics of the deposits indicate that they represent the complement of proximal subaerial and submarine pyroclastic flow deposits laid down on and close to the Krakatau islands. The distal deposits exhibit a decrease in sorting coefficient, median grain size, and thickness with increasing distance from Krakatau. Crystal fractionation is consistent with the distal facies being derived from the upper part of gravitationally segregated pyroclastic flows in which the relative amount of crystal enrichment and abundance of dense lithic clasts diminished upwards. The deposits are correlated to a major pyroclastic flow phase that occurred on the morning of 27 August at approximately 10 a.m. Energetic flows spread out away from the volcano at speeds in excess of 100 km/h and traveled up to 80 km from source. The flows retained temperatures high enough to burn victims on the SW coast of Sumatra. Historical accounts from ships in the Sunda Straits constrain the area affected by the flows to a minimum of 4x103 km2. At the distal edge of this area the flows were relatively dilute and turbulent, yet carried enough material to deposit several tens of centimeters of tephra. The great mobility of the Krakatau flows from the 10 a.m. activity may be the result of enhanced runout over the sea. It is proposed that the generation of steam at the flow/seawater interface may have led to a reduction in the sedimentation of particles and consequently a delay in the time before the flows ceased lateral motion and became buoyantly convective. The buoyant distal edge of these ash-and steam-laden clouds lifted off into the atmosphere, leading to cooling, condensation, and mud rain.

Variations in column height and magma discharge during the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

Abstract Peak eruption column heights for the B1, B2, B3 and B4 units of the May 18, 1980 fall deposit from Mount St. Helens have been determined from pumice and lithic clast sizes and models of tephra dispersal. Column heights determined from the fall deposit agree well with those determined by radar measurements. B1 and B2 units were derived from plinian activity between 0900 and about 1215 hrs. B3 was formed by fallout of tephra from plumes that rose off pyroclastic flows from about 1215 to 1630 hrs. A brief return to plinian activity between 1630 and 1715 hrs was marked by a maximum in column height (19 km) during deposition of B4. Variations in magma discharge during the eruption have been reconstructed from modelling of column height during plinian discharge and mass-balance calculations based on the volume of pyroclastic flows and coignimbrite ash. Peak magma discharge occurred during the period 1215–1630 hrs, when pyroclastic flows were generated by collapse of low fountains through the crater breach. Pyroclastic flow deposits and the widely dispersed co-ignimbrite ash account for 77% of the total erupted mass, with only 23% derived from plinian discharge. A shift in eruptive style at noon on May 18 may have been associated with increase in magma discharge and the eruption of silicic andesite mingled with the dominant mafic dacite. Increasing abundance of the silicic andesite during the period of highest magma discharge is consistent with the draw-up and tapping of deeper levels in the magma reservoir, as predicted by theoretical models of magma withdrawal. Return to plinian activity late in the afternoon, when magma discharge decreased, is consistent with theoretical predictions of eruption column behavior. The dominant generation of pyroclastic flows during the May 18 eruption can be attributed to the low bulk volatile content of the magma and the increasing magma discharge that resulted in the transition from a stable, convective eruption column to a collapsing one.

Source of Ash Zone 1 in the North Atlantic

Geochemical evidence shows that the silicic component of the widespread Ash Zone 1 in the North Atlantic is derived from a major ignimbrite-forming eruption which occurred at the Katla caldera in southern Iceland during the transition from glacial to interglacial conditions in Younger Dryas time. Both trace and major element evidence of the rhyolitic products excludes the Öræfajökull volcano as a source. The high-Ti basaltic component in the marine ash zone can also be attributed to contemporaneous eruption in the Katla volcanic complex. Dispersal of tephra from this event is primarily attributed to the generation of co-ignimbrite ash columns in the atmosphere, with ash fallout on both sea ice and on the ocean floor north and east of Iceland. Owing to the changing ocean circulation characteristics of the glacial regime, including suppression of the Irminger Current and a stronger North Atlantic Current, tephra was rafted on sea ice south into the central North Atlantic and deposited as dispersed Ash Zone 1. Sediments south of Iceland also show evidence of the formation of ash turbidites, generated either by the entrance of pyroclastic flows into the sea, or during discharge of jökulhlaups or glacier bursts from this subglacial eruption.

Sedimentology of the Krakatau 1883 submarine pyroclastic deposits

The majority of tephra generated during the paroxysmal 1883 eruption of Krakatau volcano, Indonesia, was deposited in the sea within a 15-km radius of the caldera. Two syneruptive pyroclastic facies have been recovered in SCUBA cores which sampled the 1883 subaqueous pyroclastic deposit. The most commonly recovered facies is a massive textured, poorly sorted mixture of pumice and lithic lapilli-to-block-sized fragments set in a silty to sandy ash matrix. This facies is indistinguishable from the 1883 subaerial pyroclastic flow deposits preserved on the Krakatau islands on the basis of grain size and component abundances. A less common facies consists of well-sorted, planarlaminated to low-angle cross-bedded, vitric-enriched silty ash. Entrance of subaerial pyroclastic flows into the sea resulted in subaqueous deposition of the massive facies primarily by deceleration and sinking of highly concentrated, deflated components of pyroclastic flows as they traveled over water. The basal component of the deposit suggests no mixing with seawater as inferred from retention of the fine ash fraction, high temperature of emplacement, and lack of traction structures, and no significant hydraulic sorting of components. The laminated facies was most likely deposited from low-concentration pyroclastic density currents generated by shear along the boundary between the submarine pyroclastic flows and seawater. The Krakatau deposits are the first well-documented example of true submarine pyroclastic flow deposition from a modern eruption, and thus constitute an important analog for the interpretation of ancient sequences where subaqueous deposition has been inferred based on the facies characteristics of encapsulating sedimentary sequences.

Petrologic diversity in Mount St. Helens dacites during the last 4,000 years: implications for magma mixing

Mount St. Helens has explosively erupted dacitic magma discontinuously over the last 40,000 years, and detailed stratigraphic data are available for the past 4,000 years. During this last time period the major-element composition of the dacites has ranged from mafic (62–64 wt% SiO2) to felsic (65–67 wt% SiO2), temperature has varied by about 150°C (770°–920°C), and crystallinity has ranged between 20% and 55%. Water content of these dacites has also fluctuated greatly. Although the source for the dacitic magmas is probably partial melting of lower crustal rocks, there is strong physical evidence, such as banded pumices, thermal heterogeneities in single pumices, phenocryst disequilibrium, contrasts between compositions of glass inclusions and host matrix glass, and amphibole reaction rims, that suggests that magma mixing has been prominent in the dacitic reservoir. Indeed, we suggest that the variations in major- and trace-element abundances in Mount St. Helens dacites indicate that magma mixing between felsic dacite and mafic magma has controlled the petrologic diversity of the dacitic magmas. Magma mixing has also controlled the composition of andesites erupted at Mount St. Helens, and thus it appears that the continuum of magmatic composition erupted at the volcano is controlled by mixing between felsic dacite, or possibly rhyodacite, and basalt. The flux of the felsic endmember to the reservior appears to have been relatively constant, whereas the flux of basalt may have increased in the past 4,000 years, as suggested by the apparently increased abundance of mafic dacite and andesite erupted in this period.

The intensity and magnitude of Holocene plinian eruptions from Mount St. Helens volcano

Dispersal characteristics of the T, We, Wn, Pu, Ps, Ye, Yn and Yb plinian fall deposits of Mount St. Helens have been measured at 80 sites downwind of the volcano in order to model eruption dynamics and atmospheric transport. Isopleth contours for the sizes of maximum pumice and lithic clasts are used to calculate peak eruption column heights and intensities (magma discharge) based on a theoretical model of tephra dispersal. New proximal thickness measurements are combined with an empirical distal extrapolation, based on studies of 53 plinian deposits, to calculate the magnitude (erupted mass) of each eruption. Layer Yn (3510 y r B.P.) represents the highest intensity and largest magnitude eruption at Mount St. Helens in post-glacial times. Modeling suggests column height grew to about 31 km before gradually declining at the end of the plinian phase (~ 26 hours). Several intraplinian surge deposits are present in the upper part of the fall layer close to the volcano and up to 15 km to the northeast of Mount St. Helens. Peak intensity of the plinian phase was 108 kg/s and the total erupted volume was 4 km3 (DRE of magma). Small plinian-style eruptions are represented by layers such as Ps and Pu of the Pine Creek eruptive period (3000-2500 yr B.P.) and have intensities of only ~ 106 kg/s. When compared with plinian eruptions from other volcanoes, the Holocene eruptions of Mount St. Helens span from the lower to the middle part of the known range in intensity and magnitude and are typical of events derived from intermediate-sized stratovolcanoes. There is also a general correlation between the intensity of plinian eruptions within eruptive cycles and the repose period prior to each cycle. This relationship may be related to a time-dependent process for the accumulation of differentiated and volatile-rich magma within the chamber beneath Mount St. Helens.

Pre-eruption compositional gradients and mixing of andesite and dacite magma erupted from Nevado del Ruiz Volcano, Colombia in 1985

Abstract A small volume of mixed andesite and dacite magma was ejected as pumice fall, pyroclastic flow and pyroclastic surge during the 13 November 1985 explosive eruption of Nevada del Ruiz volcano in Colombia. Whole-rock compositions range from 59 to 63% SiO 2 and are classified as medium- to high-K andesites and dacites. Three types of pumices occur in the fall deposit: (1) homogeneous, crystal-rich dacite; (2) hetereogeneously mixed dacite and andesite; and (3) homogeneous andesite with abundant microlites (volumetrically dominant). Matrix glasses show a distinct compositional gap between 68 and 71% SiO 2 . The gap is similar within heterogeneous pumices of type (2) and between homogeneous pumices of types (1) and (3). In contrast, melt inclusions in phenocrysts preserve a continuous compositional spectrum between the two end-member matrix glass compositions of the homogeneous andesite and dacite. Modelling of fractionational crystallization involving removal of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and Fe-Ti oxides can produce the liquid trend defined by melt inclusions. A compositional gap in the Ruiz pumice matrix glasses is attributed to the establishment of a two-layer zonation of the magma chamber prior to eruption. Collection of a fractionated liquid (dacite) at top of the chamber resulted from side-wall crystallization and fractionation of an andesitic magma body. Independent convection in each layer led to two thermal regimes which stabilized two dominant melt compositions. The large contrast in SiO 2 of these liquids reflects the shallow slope of cotectic boundaries in composition/temperature space of calc-alkaline magmas of these compositions. Intermediate liquids trapped by melt inclusions represent volumetrically small, random sampling of the fractionation process occuring at the margin of the andesite magma. Mixing of andesite and dacite magma occurred during the explosive eruption as draw-up of denser andesite magma through the overlying dacite took place. Fluid-dynamic calculations indicate that discharge conditions of the Ruiz eruption and the viscosity ratio of the magmas was suitable for the production of mixed pumices even though the flow was in the laminar regime. These observations corroborate experimental work by Blake and Campbell (1986) on the mixing of magmas with contrasting viscosites. Sulfur yield from the eruption, manifested by a large SO 2 plume detected by satellite, and high adsorbed sulfur content on tephra fallout, indicate total sulfur emission of 4.7 × 10 8 kg S, or about an order of magnitude larger than can be accounted for by degassing of the erupted magma. If a separate sulfur-rich vapor phase existed in the magma reservoir, as implied by our results, then its pre-eruption volume was of the order of 4 to 7 vol. % of the erupted magma.

Use of fractal analysis for discrimination of particles from primary and reworked jökulhlaup deposits in SE Iceland

Abstract The morphology of sideromelane particles from jokulhlaup deposits in southeastern Iceland has been studied by fractal analysis to assess post-depositional changes associated with reworking. Fractal dimensions of particle boundaries were calculated from data obtained by the caliper and dilation methods. Most particles exhibit multifractal relationships with a textural (D1) and structural (D2) fractal dimension. Particles from primary jokulhlaup deposits have significantly greater textural and structural fractal dimensions compared to reworked deposits. Differences in the fractal dimensions indicate that reworking in the littoral zone has reduced both the amount of fine scale features on particle surfaces and the complexity of the overall particle shapes. The caliper and dilation methods yield similar values of textural fractal dimension for each particle. For the same particles, the dilation method yields higher values of structural fractal dimension. Reworked particles used in this study can be effectively discriminated from primary particles using a combination of D1 and D2 fractal dimensions. The results indicate that fractal analysis provides a useful quantitative characterization of complex volcanic particles and can be utilized to examine aspects of particle origin, transport and deposition.

Influence of magma composition on the eruptive activity of Mount St. Helens, Washington

The relation of eruptive intensity with magma composition and viscosity has been investigated for Mount St. Helens, Washington, where eruptive activity has ranged from basaltic lava flows to dacitic Plinian eruptions. The Plinian eruptions have varied in eruptive intensity from 10 6 to 10 8 kg/s, yet all erupted dacitic magma. These dacites, however, differ greatly in temperature, water content, and crystallinity, and thus magma viscosity varies by two orders of magnitude. The variation in viscosity is correlated inversely with intensity, demonstrating the control of composition on intensity. In addition, more mafic magmas erupted at lower intensities, showing that the wide range in eruptive behavior is linked to magma composition. Changes in composition result mainly from mixing of basaltic and dacitic magmas and occur in cycles. The rate of change during a cycle depends upon the length of the preceding repose period and the flux of basalt to the reservoir, because the supply of dacite has been relatively constant. When the flux of basalt is low, cycles progress from dacite to andesite over extended periods, whereas a higher flux leads to more rapid changes. Because composition controls eruptive intensity, the eruptive behavior of the volcano also varies through a cycle.