S. David Leonard

Recognition memory of preschool children for pictures and words

Preshool children’s memory of words and pictures was examined using a recognition-memory task. The results indicated that pictures were better retained than words. These findings were discussed in terms of previous research and theory that has dealt with children’s modes of representing information.

How Does the Population Interpret Warning Signals

The experiment concerns the problem of responding appropriately to warnings. Some organizations, such as the military and the American National Standards Institute have adopted particular meanings for certain signal words. The population at large is not trained in these respects. Therefore, it is not known how they interpret different signal words. In keeping with the assumption that the stronger the warning, the more likely it will be heeded, an effort was made to determine how the population in general differentiates levels of warnings. The study examined population stereotypes for various signal words. Contrary to some studies (cf. Karnes and Leonard, 1986), no differences were found in ratings of perception of risk to different signal words. Further, size of the signal word and color of the signal word had no effect on perception of risk. Statements of consequences of disregarding the warnings and type of risk situation did affect rated perception of risk. Also, circumstances in which the subjects might be placed affected ratings of likelihood of disregarding warnings. These results were discussed in terms of an adaptation level of information for perception of risk.

DOES COLOR OF WARNINGS AFFECT RISK PERCEPTION

Abstract Colors are used with signal words in warning messages to attract attention of users and to communicate the hazards associated with a product. The signaling property of color has only recently been examined. Standards that associate colors with levels of hazards have not been based on empirical study. Four experiments reported here obtained responses relating relative risks to colors. In one experiment color of background produced a significant difference, but succeeding results suggested this was related to lack of salience of the signal words in that format. In general, the combinations of colors with signal words suggested by various standards organizations were not found to fit the population stereotype. The dominant response of red is associated with risks at all levels. The results are discussed in terms of strategies for warnings. A conclusion is that shape or other graphical configurations may serve better than color to convey level of risk. Relevance to industry Many hazardous circumstances in industry must be warned against. The form of warnings is important to gain attention. Color associated with warnings has been assumed to influence risk perception. These results suggest that without training the combinations used are not recognized. Only red is considered relevant.

Association of colors with warning signal words

Colors are used in warning messages in combination with signal words to attract the attention of users and to communicate to them the risk in using a product. Little attention has been paid to the effectiveness of color as a signal. Standards for the colors to be associated with different levels of hazards have not been based on empirical study. The experiments using semantic differential and free-association techniques reported here obtained responses from 261 college students regarding the relative effects of colors as signals of risk. The use of signal colors in the combinations suggested by various standards organizations was not well supported by the data. Suggestions for alternative approaches were made. These include use of shape components as part of the signal and the necessity for training of individuals in the nature of warning signals. Relevance to industry Industry often involves hazards requiring warnings. Signal words and colors are used to alert individuals to the hazards severity. Correspondence of colors to the signal words and to the severity of the hazard should be that used by those individuals affected. Because this may not happen additional efforts are needed.

AGE DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTION OF RISK

Age differences in perception of risk and the likelihood of disregarding warning signs were examined. A total of 358 adults, between 18 and 85 years old, were asked to rate 12 warning labels with respect to (a) how risky it would be to ignore the warning, (b) how likely it was that they would disregard the warning, and (c) how familiar they were with the labels. The older groups indicated higher risk in ignoring the signs than did the younger group. The older subjects were also less willing to disregard the signs than the younger subjects.

Risk Perception and Use of Warnings

The purpose of the studies was to develop information about how the general public perceives the degree of danger represented by signal words in warnings. Although many organizations have guidelines for the determination of what signal words are to be used with specific hazards, these are usually unknown to the public. For 15 items that had been rated for the seriousness of risk, 288 subjects were asked to indicate which signal word they would use to inform others of the hazard. Signal words that had been found to rate high in seriousness by Leonard, Karnes, and Schneider (1988) tended to be used more with items rated as higher risks. Differences were found among age groups with older subjects using signal words that carried more serious connotations. The possible warnings that might be used were discussed.

Effects of Benign Experiences on the Perception of Risk

In accordance with simple reinforcement theory it is assumed that experiences with potentially dangerous events that do not result in harm to an individual will tend to extinguish the individuals perception of the risk associated with those events. The purpose of the experiment described here is to evaluate the extent to which experiences that have not resulted in injury or concern for injury may affect the perception of risk associated with warnings. In line with theory, those persons having had experience with all terrain vehicles (ATVs) showed less perception of risk than those without such experience. Further, the efficacy of warnings against use with passengers varied as a function of prior passenger experience.

Effects of Task Difficulty on Transfer Performance on Rotary Pursuit.

The effects of task difficulty on transfer performance in a perceptual-motor tracking task were investigated. Five groups of Ss (ns = 15) practiced 45 30-sec. trials with 30-sec. rests on a pursuit-rotor tracking task at 5 levels of difficulty, 30, 40, 45, 50, and 60 rpm. 48 hr. later, all Ss practiced at 45 rpm. The results showed that the extreme transfer groups (30 and 60 rpm) were significantly poorer than the central transfer groups (40, 45, and 50 rpm) on the first five trials of the second session but after 9 blocks of 5 trials, performance was similar. The roles of perceptual, motor, and strategy factors in transfer are discussed.

What you don't know can hurt you: household products and events

Product safety is affected by product design and by the knowledge of the user, either through the users own background or through instructions and warnings presented with the product. Given adequate knowledge, warnings can serve primarily to remind individuals of the hazards and precautions that can be taken. This study examined people in the USA (represented by two diverse samples) to evaluate their knowledge about the hazards associated with common household products and situations using both multiple choice and open-ended surveys. The results indicated that the respondents were aware of a substantial number of hazards, but their knowledge often did not extend to the specific circumstances that could produce personal injury and property damage. Further, comparisons of cued and non-cued responses suggested some hazards are not well recognized without the cue. The results indicate warnings are needed both as reminders and to provide safety information.

Perception of Risk in Automobiles: Is it Accurate?

Consumer concern with safety may be nullified because understanding of hazards associated with uses and misuses of products is often inadequate owing to lack of understanding relevant physical principles. These studies examined the publics understanding of hazards associated with automobiles. Recent safety advances have included passive restraint systems to increase the likelihood of buckling up. Such systems are usually passive/active systems, because lap belts must be manually buckled. Not buckling the lap belt may cause the system to become an injury-producing system rather than an injury-preventing system. Without lap restraint severe neck injuries and possible ejection from the vehicle can occur. Similar problems are posed by other seat belt behaviors. Surveys of general knowledge of these problems and of problems associated with the temperatures occurring in vehicles exposed to solar radiation indicated significant knowledge gaps. Suggestions are made for added warnings and informational programs to ameliorate the situation.