S. Galleti

A Helium Spread among the Main-Sequence Stars in NGC 2808

We have made a detailed study of the color distribution of the main sequence of the globular cluster (GC) NGC 2808, based on new deep HST WFPC2 photometry of a field in the uncrowded outskirts of the cluster. The observed color distribution of main-sequence stars is not Gaussian and is wider than expected for a single stellar population, given our (carefully determined) measurement errors. About 20% of the sample stars are much bluer than expected and are most plausibly explained as a population having a much larger helium abundance than the bulk of the main sequence. Using synthetic color-magnitude diagrams based on new stellar models, we estimate that the helium mass fraction of these stars is Y ~ 0.4. The newly found anomaly on the main sequence gives credence to the idea that GCs like NGC 2808 have undergone self-enrichment and that different stellar populations were born from the ejecta of the intermediate-mass asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars of the first generation. The enhancement and spread of helium among the stars in NGC 2808 have recently been suggested as a simple way to explain the very peculiar morphology of its horizontal branch. We find that if in addition to the Y = 0.40 stars, roughly 30% of the stars have Y distributed between 0.26-0.29, while 50% have primordial Y, this leads to a horizontal-branch morphology similar to that observed. In this framework, three main stages of star formation are identified, the first with primordial helium content Y 0.24, the second born from the winds of the most massive AGBs of the first stellar generation (~6-7 M☉), with Y ~ 0.4, and a third born from the matter ejected from less massive AGBs (~3.5-4.5 M☉), with Y ~ 0.26-0.29. There could have been a long hiatus (several times 107 yr), between the second and third generation in which no star formed in the protocluster. We suggest that during this period, star formation has been inhibited by the explosion of late Type II supernovae deriving from binary evolution.

2MASS NIR photometry for 693 candidate globular clusters in M 31 and the Revised Bologna Catalogue

We have identified in the 2MASS database 693 known and candidate globular clusters in M 31. The 2MASS J, H, K magnitudes of these objects have been transformed to the same homogeneous photometric system of existing near infrared photometry of M 31 globulars, finally yielding J, H, K integrated photometry for 279 confirmed M 31 clusters, 406 unconfirmed candidates and 8 objects with controversial classification. Of these objects 529 lacked any previous estimate of their near infrared magnitudes. The newly assembled near infrared dataset has been implemented into a revised version of the Bologna Catalogue of M 31 globulars, with updated optical (UBVRI) photometry taken, when possible, from the most recent sources of CCD photometry available in the literature and transformed to a common photometric system. The final Revised Bologna Catalogue (available in electronic form) is the most comprehensive list presently available of confirmed and candidate M 31 globular clusters, with a total of 1164 entries. In particular, it includes 337 confirmed GCs, 688 GC candidates, 10 objects with controversial classification, 70 confirmed galaxies, 55 confirmed stars, and 4 H  regions lying within ∼3 ◦ from the center of the M 31 galaxy. Using the newly assembled database we show that the V − K color provides a powerful tool to discriminate between M 31 clusters and background galaxies, and we identify a sample of 83 globular cluster candidates, which is not likely to be contaminated by misclassified galaxies.

An updated survey of globular clusters in M 31 - II. Newly discovered bright and remote clusters

Aims. We present the first results of a large spectroscopic survey of candidate globular clusters located in the extreme outskirts of the nearby M 31 galaxy. The survey is aimed at ascertaining the nature of the selected candidates to increase the sample of confirmed M 31 clusters lying more that 2 ◦ away from the center of the galaxy. Methods. We obtained low resolution spectra (λ/∆λ � 800–1300) of 48 targets selected from the Extended Source Catalogue of 2MASS, as in Galleti et al. (2005, AA the other four are completely new discoveries: B516, B517, B518, B519. The newly discovered clusters lie at projected distance 40 kpc Rp 100 kpc from the center of M 31, and have absolute integrated magnitude −9.5 MV −7.5. For all the observed clusters we have measured the strongest Lick indices and we have obtained spectroscopic metallicity estimates. Mackey-GC1, Martin-GC1, B517 and B518 have spectra typical of old and metal poor globular clusters ([Fe/H] −1.3); B519 appears old but quite metal-rich ([Fe/H] �− 0.5); B516 presents very strong Balmer absorption lines: if this is indeed a cluster it should have a relatively young age (likely < 2 Gyr). Conclusions. The present analysis nearly doubles the number of M 31 globulars at Rp ≥ 40 kpc. At odds with the Milky Way, M 31 appears to have a significant population of very bright globular clusters in its extreme outskirts.

An updated survey of globular clusters in M 31 - III. A spectroscopic metallicity scale for the Revised Bologna Catalog

Aims. We present a new homogeneous set of metallicity estimates based on Lick indices for the old globular clusters of the M 31 galaxy. The final aim is to add homogeneous spectroscopic metallicities to as many entries as possible of the Revised Bologna Catalog of M 31 clusters ��� , by reporting Lick index measurements from any source (literature, new observations, etc.) on the same scale. Methods. New empirical relations of [Fe/H] as a function of [MgFe] and Mg2 indices are based on the well-studied galactic globular clusters, complemented with theoretical model predictions for −0.2 ≤ [Fe/H] ≤ +0.5. Lick indices for M 31 clusters from various literature sources (225 clusters) and from new observations by our team (71 clusters) have been transformed into the Trager et al. system, yielding new metallicity estimates for 245 globular clusters of M 31. Results. Our values are in good agreement with recent estimates based on detailed spectral fitting and with those obtained from color magnitude diagrams of clusters imaged with the Hubble Space Telescope. The typical uncertainty on individual estimates is �± 0.25 dex, as resulted from the comparison with metallicities derived from color magnitude diagrams of individual clusters. Conclusions. The metallicity distribution of M 31 globular cluster is briefly discussed and compared with that of the Milky Way. Simple parametric statistical tests suggest that the distribution is probably not unimodal. The strong correlation between metallicity and kinematics found in previous studies is confirmed. The most metal-rich GCs tend to be packed into the center of the system and to cluster tightly around the galactic rotation curve defined by the HI disk, while the velocity dispersion about the curve increases with decreasing metallicity. However, also the clusters with [Fe/H] < −1.0 display a clear rotation pattern, at odds with their Milky Way counterparts.

An updated survey of globular clusters in M 31 I. Classification and radial velocity for 76 candidate clusters

Aims. We present the first results of a large spectroscopic survey of globular clusters and candidate globular clusters in the nearby M 31 galaxy. The survey is aimed at the classification of known candidate M 31 clusters and at the study of their kinematic properties. Methods. We obtained low-resolution spectroscopy (λ/∆λ � 800 − 1300) for 133 targets, including 76 yet-to-be-confirmed candidate clusters (i.e. with no previous spectroscopic information), 55 already-confirmed genuine M 31 clusters, and 2 uncertain candidates. Our observations allowed a reliable estimate of the target radial velocity, within a typical accuracy of ∼±20 km s −1 . The observed candidates have been robustly classified according to their radial velocity and shape parameters that allowed us to confidently discriminate between point sources and extended objects even from low-spatial-resolution imagery. Results. In our set of 76 candidate clusters we found: 42 newly-confirmed bona-fide M 31 clusters, 12 background galaxies, 17 foreground Galactic stars, 2 Hii regions belonging to M 31 and 3 unclassified (possibly M 31 clusters or foreground stars) objects. The classification of a few other candidates not included in our survey has been also reassessed on various observational bases. All the sources of radial velocity estimates for M 31 known globular clusters available in the literature have been compared and checked, and a homogeneous general list has been obtained for 349 confirmed clusters with radial velocity. Conclusions. Our results suggest that a significant number of genuine clusters (100) is still hidden among the plethora of known candidates proposed by various authors. Hence our knowledge of the globular cluster system of the M 31 galaxy is still far from complete even in terms of simple membership.

Massive Young Clusters in the Disk of M31

We have studied the properties of a sample of 67 very blue and likely young massive clusters in M31 extracted from the Bologna Revised Catalog of globular clusters, selected according to their color [(B - V)0 ≤ 0.45] and/or the strength of their Hβ spectral index (Hβ ≥ 3.5 A). Their existence in M31 has been noted by several authors in the past; we show here that these blue luminous compact clusters (BLCCs) are a significant fraction (15%) of the whole globular cluster system of M31. Compared to the global properties of the M31 globular cluster system, they appear to be intrinsically fainter and morphologically less concentrated, with a shallower Balmer jump and enhanced Hβ absorption in their spectra. Empirical comparison with integrated properties of clusters with known ages, as well as with theoretical simple stellar population models, consistently indicates that their typical age is less than ~2 Gyr, so they are probably not as metal-poor as would be deduced if they were older. When selecting BLCCs by either their (B - V)0 colors or the strength of their Hβ index, the cluster sample turns out to be distributed on the outskirts of the M31 disk, sharing the kinematic properties of the thin, rapidly rotating disk component. If confirmed to be young and not metal-poor, these clusters indicate the occurrence of significant recent star formation in the thin disk of M31, although they do not set constraints on the epoch of its early formation.

Age as the Second Parameter in NGC 288/NGC 362? I. Turnoff Ages: A Purely Differential Comparison

We present deep V, I photometry of the globular clusters NGC 288, 362, and 1851 obtained during a single observational run under strictly homogeneous conditions. We use the bimodal horizontal branch (HB) of NGC 1851 as a bridge to obtain the optimum relative match between the HBs of NGC 288 and NGC 362. In this way we can effectively remove the uncertainties associated with distance, reddening, and inhomogeneities in the absolute calibration, thus obtaining a very robust, purely differential estimate of the age difference between these two clusters. According to the bridge test, NGC 288 is found to be older than NGC 362 by 2 ± 1 Gyr. This result is fully confirmed also by all classical differential age diagnostics, either based on the luminosity (ΔV) or color [δ(V-I)@2.5] of the main-sequence turnoff point.

Gaia Data Release 1 - The photometric data

Context. This paper presents an overview of the photometric data that are part of the first Gaia data release. Aims. The principles of the processing and the main characteristics of the Gaia photometric data are presented. Methods. The calibration strategy is outlined briefly and the main properties of the resulting photometry are presented. Results. Relations with other broadband photometric systems are provided. The overall precision for the Gaia photometry is shown to be at the milli-magnitude level and has a clear potential to improve further in future releases.

Gaia Data Release 1 - Principles of the photometric calibration of the G band

Context. Gaia is an ESA cornerstone mission launched on 19 December 2013 aiming to obtain the most complete and precise 3D map of our Galaxy by observing more than one billion sources. This paper is part of a series of documents explaining the data processing and its results for Gaia Data Release 1, focussing on the G band photometry. Aims. This paper describes the calibration model of the Gaia photometric passband for Gaia Data Release 1. Methods. The overall principle of splitting the process into internal and external calibrations is outlined. In the internal calibration, a self-consistent photometric system is generated. Then, the external calibration provides the link to the absolute photometric flux scales. Results. The Gaia photometric calibration pipeline explained here was applied to the first data release with good results. Details are given of the various calibration elements including the mathematical formulation of the models used and of the extraction and preparation of the required input parameters (e.g. colour terms). The external calibration in this first release provides the absolute zero point and photometric transformations from the Gaia G passband to other common photometric systems. Conclusions. This paper describes the photometric calibration implemented for the first Gaia data release and the instrumental effects taken into account. For this first release no aperture losses, radiation damage, and other second-order effects have not yet been implemented in the calibration.

Gaia Data Release 2. Photometric content and validation

This work presents results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia MultiLateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia. The Gaia Archive website is http://gea.esac.esa.int/archive/. This work has been supported by the United Kingdom Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, the United Kingdom Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) through grant ST/L006553/1, and the United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA) through grant ST/N000641/1. This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “Maria de Maeztu”). This work was supported by the Italian funding agencies Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) through grants I/037/08/0, I/058/10/0, 2014-025- R.0, and 2014- 025-R.1.2015 to INAF and contracts I/008/10/0 and 2013/030/I.0 to ALTEC S.p.A and Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF). This research has made use of the APASS database, located at the AAVSO web site. Funding for APASS has been provided by the Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund. We thank A. Vallenari for supplying us with spectra for the validation of the external flux calibration and passband determination