S. Jose

Lopinavir loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for intestinal lymphatic targeting

The poor orally available lopinavir was successfully encapsulated in glyceryl behenate based solid lipid nanoparticles (Lo-SLN) for its ultimate use to target intestinal lymphatic vessels in combined chemotherapy-the so-called Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART). SLN with mean particle size of 230 nm (polydispersity index, PDI<0.27) and surface electrical charge of approx. -27mV, were produced by hot homogenization process followed by ultrasonication. Particles were characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) to confirm their solid character and the homogeneous distribution of drug within the lipid matrix. In vitro release studies at pH 6.8 phosphate buffer (PBS) and at pH 1.2 HCl 0.1N showed a slow release in both media. From the intestinal lymphatic transport study it became evident that SLN increased the cumulative percentage dose of lopinavir secreted into the lymph, which was 4.91-fold higher when compared with a conventional drug solution in methyl cellulose 0.5% (w/v) as suspending agent (Lo-MC). The percentage bioavailability was significantly enhanced. The AUC for the Lo-SLN was 2.13-fold higher than that obtained for the Lo-MC of similar concentration. The accelerated stability studies showed that there was no significant change in the mean particle size and PDI after storage at 25±2°C/60±5% RH. The shelf life of optimized formulation was assessed based on the remained drug content in the stabilized formulation and was shown to be 21.46 months.

In vivo pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of resveratrol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for brain delivery.

Resveratrol is a potent anticancer. However, because of its low half-life (<0.25 h) the molecule is difficult to achieve the therapeutic concentration at the site of action. The aim of this work was to check the brain targeting ability of glyceryl behenate-based solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for resveratrol. SLN were prepared by solvent evaporation technique employing high speed homogenization followed by ultrasonication. SLN were designed at varying drug-lipid ratios (1:5, 1:9, 1:10, 1:11, 1:12 and 1:15) using Tween 80 or a combination of Tween 80 and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as surfactants. The mean particle size and zeta potential of the optimized formulation (drug-lipid ratio of 1:10) were 248.30 ± 3.80nm and -25.49 ± 0.49mV, respectively. The particle size and the encapsulation efficiency (EE) increased when varying the drug-lipid ratio from 1:5 to 1:15. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis showed that SLN were spherical in shape and had a smooth surface. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses revealed that the matrix of drug-loaded SLN was in disordered crystalline phase. The in vitro release study in phosphate buffer pH 7.4 followed a sustained release pattern. The drug release data was found to fit best into Higuchi kinetic model suggesting the diffusion controlled mechanism of drug release. The cytotoxicity assay (MAT) showed that SLN were equally effective (P<0.5) as free resveratrol, as an anti-tumor agent. The in vivo biodistribution study using Wistar rats demonstrated that SLN could significantly (P<0.001) increase the brain concentration of resveratrol (17.28 ± 0.6344 μg/g) as compared to free resveratrol (3.45 ± 0.3961 μg/g). The results showed that our resveratrol-loaded SLN serve as promising therapeutic systems to treat neoplastic diseases located in the brain tissue.

Cross-linked chitosan microspheres for oral delivery of insulin: Taguchi design and in vivo testing

Insulin-loaded chitosan microspheres were engineered by emulsion cross-linking method using glutaraldehyde as cross-linker. Taguchi orthogonal method was applied to optimize the production time and reduce the number of experiments required to obtain an optimized formulation. Three variables were evaluated, i.e. chitosan and glutaraldehyde concentrations, and cross-linking time at three levels. The dependent variables were the mean particle size and the encapsulation efficiency. The optimal formulation was obtained with chitosan 3% (w/v), glutaraldehyde 3.5% (v/v), and cross-linking time of 5h, characterized by microspheres with a mean particle size of 29.5 μm, and insulin encapsulation efficiency of 71.6±1.3%. In vivo studies were carried out using male Wistar albino rats, revealing a significant reduction in blood glucose level after administration of the optimized formulation, in comparison to a subcutaneous insulin injection. Chitosan microspheres were superior in terms of sustaining protein release over conventional insulin therapy.

Colon specific chitosan microspheres for chronotherapy of chronic stable angina

In the present work, chitosan microspheres with a mean diameter between 6.32 μm and 9.44 μm, were produced by emulsion cross-linking of chitosan, and tested for chronotherapy of chronic stable angina. Aiming at developing a suitable colon specific strategy, diltiazem hydrochloride (DTZ) was encapsulated in the microspheres, following Eudragit S-100 coating by solvent evaporation technique, exploiting the advantages of microbiological properties of chitosan and pH dependent solubility of Eudragit S-100. Different microsphere formulations were prepared varying the ratio DTZ:chitosan (1:2 to 1:10), stirring speed (1000-2000 rpm), and the concentration of emulsifier Span 80 (0.5-1.5% (w/v)). The effect of these variables on the particle size and encapsulation parameters (production yield (PY), loading capacity (LC), encapsulation efficiency (EE)) was evaluated to develop an optimized formulation. In vitro release study of non-coated chitosan microspheres in simulated gastrointestinal (GI) fluid exhibited a burst release pattern in the first hour, whereas Eudragit S-100 coating allowed producing systems of controlled release diffusion fitting to the Higuchi model, and thus suitable for colon-specific drug delivery. DSC analysis indicated that DTZ was dispersed within the microspheres matrix. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the microspheres were spherical and had a smooth surface. Chitosan biodegradability was proven by the enhanced release rate of DTZ in presence of rat caecal contents.

Predictive modeling of insulin release profile from cross-linked chitosan microspheres

Insulin-loaded microspheres composed of chitosan 3% (w/v), and loading 120 IU insulin were produced by emulsion cross-linking method. Cross-linking time was 5 h and glutaraldehyde 3.5% (v/v) was used as cross-linker. Swelling ratio studies were evaluated to predict release of insulin from chitosan microspheres. Bacitracin and sodium taurocholate were incorporated in the formulations as proteolytic enzyme inhibitor and absorption enhancer, respectively. In vitro insulin release studies were performed in phosphate buffer pH 7.4 and also in HCl pH 2 with and without trypsin. Activity of bacitracin was also evaluated. In vitro release showed a controlled profile up to 12 h and the formulation containing 0.15% (w/v) of bacitracin revealed a maximum biological activity of about 49.1 ± 4.1%. Mathematical modeling using Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas suggested a non-Fickian diffusion as the mechanism of insulin release. Insulin-loaded chitosan microspheres for oral delivery showed to be an innovative and reliable delivery system to overcome conventional insulin therapy.

Surface modified PLGA nanoparticles for brain targeting of Bacoside-A.

The present paper focuses on the development and in vitro/in vivo characterization of nanoparticles composed of poly-(D,L)-Lactide-co-Glycolide (PLGA) loading Bacoside-A, as a new approach for the brain delivery of the neuroprotective drug for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders (e.g. Alzheimer Disease). Bacoside-A-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were prepared via o/w emulsion solvent evaporation technique. Surface of the nanoparticles were modified by coating with polysorbate 80 to facilitate the crossing of the blood brain barrier (BBB), and the processing parameters (i.e. sonication time, the concentration of polymer (PLGA) and surfactant (polysorbate 80), and drug-polymer ratio) were optimized with the aim to achieve a high production yield. Brain targeting potential of the nanoparticles was evaluated by in vivo studies using Wistar albino rats. The nanoparticles produced by optimal formulation were within the nanosized range (70-200 nm) with relatively low polydispersity index (0.391 ± 1.2). The encapsulation efficiency of Bacoside-A in PLGA nanoparticles was 57.11 ± 7.11%, with a drug loading capacity of 20.5 ± 1.98%. SEM images showed the spherical shape of the PLGA nanoparticles, whereas their low crystallinity was demonstrated by X-ray studies, which also confirmed no chemical interactions between the drug and polymer molecules. The in vitro release of Bacoside-A from the PLGA nanoparticles followed a sustained release pattern with a maximum release of up to 83.04 ± 2.55% in 48 h. When compared to pure drug solution (2.56 ± 1.23 μg/g tissue), in vivo study demonstrated higher brain concentration of Bacoside-A (23.94 ± 1.74 μg/g tissue) suggesting a significant role of surface coated nanoparticles on brain targeting. The results indicate the potential of surface modified PLGA nanoparticles for the delivery of Bacoside-A to the brain.

Thermo-sensitive gels containing lorazepam microspheres for intranasal brain targeting.

Thermo-sensitive gels containing lorazepam microspheres were developed and characterized for intranasal brain targeting. Pluronics (PF-127 and PF-68) have been selected since they are thermo-reversible polymers with the property of forming a solution at low temperatures (4-5 °C), and a gel at body temperature (37 °C). This property makes them an interesting material to work with, especially in case of controlled release formulations. The present study focuses on the development of an intranasal formulation for lorazepam, as an alternative route of drug delivery to the brain. Direct transport of drugs to the brain circumventing the brain barrier, following intranasal administration, provides a unique feature and better option to target brain. The presence of mucoadhesive microspheres in the gel vehicle via nasal route can achieve a dual purpose of prolonged drug release and enhanced bioavailability. To optimise the microsphere formulation, Box Behnken design was employed by investigating the effect of three factors, polymer concentration (chitosan), emulsifier concentration (Span 80) and cross-linking agent (glutaraldehyde) on the response variable which is the mean particle size. The concentration of 21% PF-127 and 1% PF-68 were found to be promising gel vehicles. The results showed that the release rate followed a prolonged profile dispersion of the microspheres in the viscous media, in comparison to the microspheres alone. Histopathological studies proved that the optimised formulation does not produce any toxic effect on the microscopic structure of nasal mucosa.

Multiparticulate system for colon targeted delivery of ondansetron

Targeted delivery of drugs to colon has the potential for local treatment of a variety of colonic diseases. The main objective of the study was to develop a multiparticulate system containing chitosan microspheres for the colon targeted delivery of ondansetron for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. This work combines pH-dependent solubility of eudragit S-100 polymers and microbial degradability of chitosan polymers. Chitosan microspheres containing ondansetron were prepared by emulsion cross linking method. The effect of process variables like chitosan concentration, drug-polymer ratio, emulsifier concentration and stirring speed were studied on particle size and entrapment efficiency of chitosan microspheres. In vitro drug release studies in simulated gastro intestinal fluids showed a burst drug release pattern in the initial hour necessitating microencapsulation around the chitosan microspheres. The optimized formulation was then subjected to microencapsulation with eudragit S-100 by solvent evaporation technique. The effect of different coat/core ratio on particle size, drug entrapment efficiency and in vitro drug release were studied. Formulation which contain 1:10 core/coat ratio released lesser amount of drug in the upper gastro intestinal conditions and so selected as best formulation and then subjected to in vitro drug release studies in presence of rat ceacal contents to assess biodegradability of chitosan microspheres in colon. In order to study the drug release mechanism in vitro drug release data was fitted into various kinetic models. Analysis of regression values suggested that the possible drug release mechanism was Peppas model.

Floating microspheres of carvedilol as gastro retentive drug delivery system: 32 full factorial design and in vitro evaluation

Abstract Context: Designing a sustained release system for Carvedilol to increase its residence time in the stomach. Objective: Preparation of floating microsphere by the emulsion solvent diffusion method, studying the effect of various process parameters and optimize the formulation using full factorial design. Methods: Different microsphere formulations were prepared by varying the ratio ethanol:dichloromethane (1:0 to 1:1.5), ethyl cellulose:hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose and stirring speed (800–1600 rpm). The effect of these variables on particle size, encapsulation parameters, surface topography, in vitro floatability and drug release were evaluated. Results: 32 full factorial design was used for the optimization of the formulation. Drug entrapment efficiency, particle size and in vitro drug release were dependent on concentration of ethyl cellulose and stirring speed. Microspheres remained buoyant for more than 10 h and showed sustained release of the drug. Conclusion: Floating microspheres of Carvedilol with good floating ability and sustained release were developed.

Carboplatin loaded Surface modified PLGA nanoparticles: Optimization, characterization, and in vivo brain targeting studies.

The carboplatin (CP) loaded poly-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were formulated by modified solvent evaporation method. Its surface modification is done by 1% polysorbate80 (P80) to improve their entry into the brain after intraperitoneal administration (i.p) via receptor-mediated pathways. A formulation with maximum entrapment efficiency and minimal particle size was optimized by central composite design (CCD) based on mean particle size, and entrapment efficiencies as responses. The optimized formulation was characterized by mean particle size, entrapment efficiency, zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The surface modified NPs were analysed for mean particle, zeta potential, FTIR, and in vitro release studies. The spherical particles with mean particle size 161.9nm, 162.4nm and zeta potential value of -26.5, -23.9 were obtained for unmodified and surface modified NPs respectively. The in vitro release experiments of the surface modified PLGA NPs exhibited sustained release for more than 48h, which was in accordance with Higuchis equation with Fickian diffusion-based release mechanism. The in vivo bio distribution of P80 coated CP loaded PLGA NPs was compared with CP solution, and CP loaded NPs, in adult wistar rats. In the brain, compared with CP solution, both types of NPs especially NPs coated with P80 increased the concentration of carboplatin by 3.27 fold. All these results suggest that the developed formulation may improve the targeted therapy for malignant brain tumors in future.