S. Selkowitz

Daylighting simulation in the DOE-2 building energy analysis program

Abstract A daylighting calculation has been intergrated grated into the DOE-2 building energy analysis computer program. Users can, for the first time in a widely-accepted, publicly-available program, determine the impact of daylight utilization on heating and cooling loads, energy use, energy cost, and peak electrical demand. We describe the algorithms which simulate hourly-varying interior illuminance, management of windows for sun and glare control, and the operation of electric lighting control systems. Sample DOE-2 daylighting output reports are presented and results of program validation against scale model illuminance measurements using the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory sky simulator are discussed.

Glazing energy performance and design optimization with daylighting

Abstract This study systematically explores the influence of glazing systems on component loads and annual energy use in prototypical office buildings. The DOE-2.1B building energy simulation program, which contains an integrated daylighting model, is used to determine fenestration energy performance in diverse climates. The sensitivity of total energy use to orientation, window area, glazing properties (U-value, shading coefficient, visible transmittance), window management strategy, installed lighting power, and lighting control strategy are all described. We examine the conditions under which daylighting reduces net anual energy use as well as those conditions under which energy use may increase. Combinations of wall and fenestration properties that minimize net energy requirements as a function of climate and orientation are described.

Analysis of atmospheric turbidity for daylight calculations

Abstract A large set of illuminance and irradiance data has been collected for four years at 15-minute intervals in San Francisco. This data set has been used to investigate the impact of atmospheric turbidity on daylight calculations. Existing predictive formulae for Linke turbidity, T l , provide moderate agreement to measured values of T l when using nominal design values for the Angstrom scattering coefficient, β, and precipitable water vapor, w. When average measured values for β and w are used, the agreement improves. We suggest the use of an illuminance turbidity, Til, to calculate direct normal illuminance directly. We derive a simple approximate solution, Til = 1 + 21.6 β. Til appears to be a better parameter to describe atmospheric conditions since, unlike T l , it is insensitive to air mass and thus solar altitude or time of day. We present and compare plots of Til and T l vs. solar altitude, time of day, and month. Finally, we examine and compare several alternative pathways to derive direct normal illuminance from irradiance and luminous efficacy (dependent on β and w), or directly from β.

ZENITH LUMINANCE AND SKY LUMINANCE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR DAYLIGHTING CALCULATIONS

Abstract We derive an equation for zenith luminance as a function of turbidity and solar altitude based on analysis of large quantities of luminance and illuminance data measured in San Francisco, California, between September 1979 and August 1982. Using only average turbidity values to predict hourly zenith luminance as a function of solar altitude can produce large errors. We compare the equation derived from our data, which is valid over a wide range of turbidity and solar altitude, to other published models. We also compare the relationship between horizontal illuminance and zenith luminance from the clear sky and conclude that, when ideal clear days are compared, this relationship is similar to earlier work based on measurements in European climates. Finally, we compare our sky luminance distribution measurements to previous published luminance distributions using the diffusion indicatrix. Our results are intended to help improve daylight availability prediction techniques and define additional requirements for data collection.

The design and testing of a highly insulating glazing system for use with conventional window systems

In most areas of the United States, windows are by far the poorest insulating material used in buildings. As a result, approximately 3 percent of the nations energy use is used to offset heat lost through windows. Under cold conditions, conventional double glazings create uncomfortable spaces and collect condensation. However, with the recent introduction of low-emissivity (low-E) coatings and low/conductivity gas filling to respectively reduce radiative and conductive/convective heat transfer between glazing layers, some manufacturers are beginning to offer windows with R-values (resistance to heat transfer) of 4 hr-ft/sup 2/-F/Btu (0.70m/sup 2/-C/W). This papers presents designs for and analysis and test results of an insulated glass unit with a center-of-glass R-value of 8-10; approximately twice as good as gas-filled low-E units, and four times that of conventional double glazing. This high-R design starts with a conventional insulated-glass unit and adds two low-emissivity coatings, a thin glass middle glazing layer, and a Krypton or Krypton/Argon gas fill. The units overall width is 1 in. (25 mm) or less, consistent with most manufacturers frame and sash design requirements. Using state-of-the-art low-emissivity coatings does not significantly degrade the solar heat gain potential or visible transmittance of the window. Work to date has substantiatedmorexa0» this concept of a high-R window although specific components require further research and engineering development. Demonstration projects, in conjunction with utilities and several major window manufacturers, are planned. This high-R window design is the subject of a DOE patent application.«xa0less

Thermal and optical analysis of switchable window glazings

Abstract Glazing materials with variable optical properties (switchable glazings) offer the ultimate in control over the light and energy entering a building. Products of this kind are in their initial stages of development, and guidelines that relate window energy performance to glazing material properties are needed. Though the use of computer program for calculating window thermal and optical performance parameters, we evaluated (1) the relative performances of three switchable glazings prototypes with differing solar transmittance spectra; (2) the differences between glazings that switch from transmitting to reflecting and those that switch from transmitting to absorbing; and (3) the effects of positioning the switchable glazing in a window. We focused on design conditions for cooling-dominated buildings, since switchable glazings are expected to reduce cooling and lighting loads. We conclude that the differences in thermal performance between absorbing and reflecting switchable glazinhgs can be eliminated through proper placement of the glazing in a window system and through the use of other spectrally selective glazings.

THE IMPACT OF DAYLIGHTING ON PEAK ELECTRICAL DEMAND

Abstract A complete analysis of the cost-effectiveness of daylighting strategies should include the impact of daylighting on peak electrical demand as well as on energy consumption. We utilized an hour-by-hour building energy analysis program to study the thermal and daylighting impacts of fenestration on peak demand. Fenestration properties and lighting system characteristics were varied parametrically for office buildings in Madison WI and Lake Charles LA. Peak electrical demand was disaggregated by component and by zone, monthly patterns of peak demand were examined, and impacts of fenestration performance on chiller size were studied. The results suggest that for daylighted office buildings, the peak electrical demand results from a complex trade-off between cooling load due to fenestration parameters, lighting load reductions due to glazing and lighting system characteristics. Lowest peak demands generally occur with small to moderate size apertures. With daylighting, peak electrical demand is reduced by 10 to 20% for the building configuration studied (37% perimeter zone, 63% core zone). This work indicates that solar gain through fenestration must be effectively controlled in order to realize the potential of daylighting to significantly reduce peak electrical demand.

Daylight Availability Data for San Francisco

Abstract This paper analyzes solar radiation and daylight measurements taken during a four-year period in San Francisco, California. Horizontal and vertical surface measurements were taken by nine sensors at 15-minute intervals under all sun and sky conditions. The data base from which results were derived exceeds 400 000 measurements. Equations are derived for clear sky global, direct, and diffuse illuminance and irradiance on a horizontal surface as a function of solar altitude, and for overcast sky horizontal illuminance and irradiance. We present the standard deviations for all parameters in our equations to show the scatter in our data. The average illuminance on horizontal and vertical surfaces by hour and by month are presented as isolux contour plots. These data are also displayed as probability distributions, showing the percent of time in a year that a given irradiance or illuminance value will be exceeded. Monthly average values of sunshine probability are determined and compared to long-term NOAA data.

Window performance and building energy use: some technical options for increasing energy efficiency

Window system design and operation has a major impact on energy use in buildings as well as on occupants’ thermal and visual comfort. Window performance will be a function of optical and thermal properties, window management strategies, climate and orientation, and building type and occupancy. In residences, heat loss control is a primary concern, followed by sun control in more southerly climates. In commercial buildings, the daylight provided by windows may be the major energy benefits but solar gain must be controlled so that increased cooling loads do not exceed daylighting savings. Reductions in peak electrical demand and HVAC system size may also be possible in well‐designed daylighted buildings.