Sabrina M. Strickland

Hip and Groin Injuries in Athletes

Although athletic injuries about the hip and groin occur less commonly than injuries in the extremities, they can result in extensive rehabilitation time. Thus, an accurate diagnosis and well-organized treatment plan are critical. Because loads of up to eight times body weight have been demonstrated in the hip joint during jogging, presumably even greater loads can occur during vigorous athletic competition. The available imaging modalities are effective diagnostic tools when selected on the basis of a thorough history and physical examination. Considerable controversy exists as to the cause and optimal treatment of groin pain in athletes, or the so-called “sports hernia.” There has also been significant recent attention focused on intraarticular lesions that may be amenable to hip arthroscopy. This article briefly reviews several common hip and groin conditions affecting athletic patients and highlights some newer topics.

Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with allograft tendons

Allograft tissue allows reconstruction of the ACL without the donor site morbidity that can be caused by autograft harvesting. Patients who must kneel as a part of their occupation or chosen sport are particularly good candidates for allograft reconstruction. Patients over 45 years of age and those requiring revision ACL surgery can also benefit from the use and availability of allograft tendons. In some cases, patients or surgeons may opt for allograft tendons to maximize the result or morbidity ratio. Despite advances in cadaver screening and graft preparation, there remain risks of disease transmission and joint infection after allograft implantation. Detailed explanation and informed consent is vitally important in cases in which allograft tissue is used.

Lack of Hormonal Influences on Mechanical Properties of Sheep Knee Ligaments

Background: The number of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes exceeds that in male athletes at similar competitive levels. This difference has been attributed by some authors to hormone-mediated alteration in knee laxity in women. Hypothesis: Sheep anterior cruciate and medial collateral ligament strength and stiffness are not altered by administration for 6 months of estrogen or a selective estrogen receptor agonist (raloxifene). Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Thirty-eight mature ewes were divided into five groups: sham operation (N = 6), ovariectomy (N = 9), ovariectomy and estradiol implant (N = 7), low-dose raloxifene (N = 9), and high-dose raloxifene (N = 7). After 6 months, the animals were sacrificed and ligaments were tested along with those from five rams’ knees. Results: No differences were found between treatment groups for maximum force, stiffness, energy to failure, or failure site. The ultimate stress of the rams’ anterior cruciate ligaments was significantly higher than that of the ewes. Conclusions: Estrogen and estrogen receptor agonists at physiologic levels do not lead to decreased knee ligament strength. Clinical Relevance: The female hormonal milieu may not be responsible for the increased incidence of anterior cruciate ligament injury in female athletes compared with their male counterparts.

Patellofemoral pain: an update on diagnostic and treatment options

Patellofemoral pain is a frequent and often challenging clinical problem. It affects females more than males and includes many different pathologic entities that result in pain in the anterior aspect of the knee. Diagnosis of the specific cause of pain can be difficult and requires assessment of lower extremity strength, alignment, and range of motion, as well as specific patella alignment, tracking, and mobility. The treatment for patellofemoral pain is usually conservative with anti-inflammatory medications, activity modification, and a specific physical therapy program focusing on strengthening and flexibility. Infrequently, surgical treatment may be indicated after a non-operative program fails. The outcomes of surgical management may include debridement, lateral release, and realignment of the extensor mechanism to unload the patellofemoral articulation are favorable.

Patellar Instability Management: A Survey of the International Patellofemoral Study Group:

Background: Although patellofemoral instability is among the most prevalent knee disorders, the management of patients with this condition is complex and remains variable, given the lack of long-term, high-level clinical outcome studies to compare various operative and nonoperative modalities. Purpose: To discover a consensus within treatment controversies in patellofemoral instability among experienced knee surgeons with a specific interest in the patellofemoral joint. Study Design: Expert opinion; Level of evidence, 5. Methods: A 3-step modified Delphi technique was used to establish a consensus. A 34-question, case-based online survey regarding patellofemoral instability was distributed to all active members of the International Patellofemoral Study Group. Consensus statements were generated if at least 66% of the respondents agreed and then redistributed to the same panel. Modifications to the consensus statements were made based on the iterative feedback process until no discordance was encountered in the third stage. Results: Eight consensus statements were achieved. Nonoperative management is the current standard of care for a first-time dislocation in the absence of an osteochondral fragment or loose body requiring excision (100% agreement). In patients with a first-time dislocation with an operative osteochondral fracture requiring excision or repair, patellar instability should be addressed concurrently (89% agreement). Recurrent instability should be treated surgically, with most surgeons favoring medial reconstruction (77%-86% agreement). While there is general agreement that bony procedures should be performed to correct underlying bony deformities, there is no consensus regarding the most appropriate type of procedure performed. Lateral release should not be performed in isolation for the treatment of patellar instability (89% agreement). Conclusion: Despite the consensus generated in this study, our current understanding remains limited by a lack of high-level evidence as well as the numerous complex variables influencing treatment decision making. High-quality, multicenter randomized controlled trials, particularly those directly comparing specific surgical treatment methods while controlling for underlying risk factors, are needed to address these areas of uncertainty.

Patellar Articular Overlap on MRI Is a Simple Alternative to Conventional Measurements of Patellar Height

Background: Patella alta describes an abnormally high-riding patella in relationship to the femur and has been shown to correlate with patellofemoral pain, instability, chondromalacia, and arthrosis. Conventional measurements of patella alta involve multiple measurements and are often not defined on cross-sectional imaging as related to radiographs. Hypothesis: Patellar articular overlap on sagittal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will correlate well with conventional measurements of patella alta as measured by a standardized technique defined by our group. Study Design: Cohort study (diagnosis); Level of evidence, 2. Methods: MRIs of 239 knees were reviewed by 3 attending surgeons with practices focusing on patellofemoral disease, as well as 2 sports medicine fellows and 1 musculoskeletal radiologist. Measurements included articular overlap, percentage of articular coverage, Caton-Deschamps index, Blackburne-Peel index, and modified Insall-Salvati index. Results: Interrater reliability was high for Caton-Deschamps, Blackburne-Peel, and modified Insall-Salvati indices (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC], 0.877, 0.828, and 0.787, respectively). Articular overlap and percentage articular coverage correlated well with each other (ICC, 0.961; P < .001) and with the Caton-Deschamps (overlap r = –0.271, P < .001; coverage r = –0.131, P = .037) and Blackburne-Peel (overlap r = 0.343, P < .001; coverage r = –0.238, P < .001) indices. Articular overlap and percentage coverage failed to correlate with the modified Insall-Salvati index (overlap r = –0.117, P = .091; coverage r = 0.007, P = .918). Conclusion: Patellar articular overlap and percentage of patellar articular coverage show promise as a simpler alternative to conventional, ratio-based measurements of patellar height. Future studies are needed to evaluate the range of normal and the relationship to our traditionally used measurements.

Clinical Outcomes After Isolated Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction for Patellar Instability Among Patients With Trochlear Dysplasia

Background: Medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) reconstruction has become one of the most common and widely used procedures to regain stability among patients with recurrent lateral patellar dislocation. While recent studies demonstrated low recurrence rates, improved patient-reported outcome measures, and a high rate of return to sports, limited literature explored its effectiveness as an isolated intervention in the context of trochlear dysplasia. Purpose: To determine the efficacy of isolated MPFL reconstruction in treating patellar instability in the setting of trochlear dysplasia. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: This was a retrospective review of consecutive patients who underwent uni- or bilateral medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction for patellofemoral instability with a minimum 2-year follow-up. No osteotomies were included. Pre- and postoperative assessment included ligamentous laxity, patellar crepitus, tilt, translation, apprehension, and radiographic features, including tibial tubercle-trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance, Dejour classification, and Caton-Deschamps index. Results: A total of 121 MPFL reconstructions were included. Mean age at surgery was 23.8 years, and 4.4 dislocation events occurred before surgery. Mean follow-up was 44 months; 76% of patients were female. Mean preoperative TT-TG ratio was 13.5, and mean Caton-Deschamps ratio was 1.2; 92% of patients had Dejour B, C, or D trochlear dysplasia. Kujala score improved from 55.0 preoperatively to 90.0 (P < .001). Almost all patients (94.5%) were able to return to sports at 1 year, with 74% returning to the same or higher level of play. Only 3 patients reported a postoperative dislocation or subluxation event. Discussion: For patients without significantly elevated TT-TG distances or significant patella alta, isolated MPFL reconstruction provides a safe and effective treatment for patellofemoral instability, despite the presence of trochlear dysplasia. Most patients are able to return to sports by 1 year postoperatively at the same or higher level of play.

Cartilage Regeneration in Full-Thickness Patellar Chondral Defects Treated with Particulated Juvenile Articular Allograft Cartilage: An MRI Analysis

Background Full-thickness cartilage lesions of the patella represent a common source of pain and dysfunction. Previously reported surgical treatment options include marrow stimulation, cell-based treatments, and osteochondral transfer. Minced juvenile allograft cartilage is a novel treatment option that allows for a single stage approach for these lesions. Hypothesis Particulated juvenile allograft cartilage (PJAC) for the treatment of chondral defects of the patella would offer acceptable lesion fill rates, mature over time, and not be associated with any negative biologic effects on the surrounding tissue. Methods A retrospective chart review of prospectively collected data was conducted to identify consecutive patients who were treated with PJAC for a full thickness symptomatic cartilage lesion. Qualitative (fast spin echo) and quantitative (T2 mapping) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was undertaken at the 6-, 12-, and 24-month postoperative mark. Numerous patient, lesion, and graft specific factors were assessed against MRI scores and percent defect fill of the graft. Graft maturation over time was also assessed. Results Forty-five patients total were included in the study. Average age at the time of surgery was 26.5 years (range 13-45 years), average lesion size was 208 mm2 (range 4-500 mm2), and average donor age was 49.5 months (range 3-120 months). Sixty percent of the patients were female, while 93% of all patients underwent a concomitant procedure at the time of the index operation. Six-month MRI findings revealed that no patient-, graft-, or donor-specific factors correlated with MR scores, and 82% of the knees demonstrated good to excellent fill. Twelve-month MRI findings revealed that T2 relaxation times of deep graft demonstrated negative correlation with patient age (P = 0.049) and donor age (P = 0.006), the integration zone showed a negative correlation with donor age (P = 0.026). In all, 85% of patients at 12 months displayed good to moderate fill of the graft. At 24 months, patient age demonstrated negative correlation with average T2 relaxation times of the deep and superficial graft (P = 0.005; P = 0.0029) and positive correlation with the superficial zone of the adjacent cartilage (P = 0.001). Donor age showed negative correlation with grayscale score (P = 0.004) and T2 relaxation times at deep integration zone (P = 0.018). T2 relaxation times of deep and superficial graft and integration zone improved over time (P < 0.001) and between each time point. Conclusions Particulated juvenile allograft tissue appears to be an acceptable reconstructive option for full-thickness cartilage lesions of the patella, offering satisfactory tissue defect fill at 6, 12, and 24 months after surgery. Imaging of the repaired cartilage demonstrates progressive graft maturation over time.

Economic Decision Model for First-Time Traumatic Patellar Dislocations in Adolescents

Background: The surgical management of traumatic patellar dislocations in adolescents is associated with a lower rate of recurrent dislocations compared with nonoperative care. However, the attendant cost of surgery and the quality-of-life benefit of a surgical treatment strategy are unclear. Purpose: To compare the cost-utility of 3 management strategies for acute first-time patellar dislocations in adolescents: (1) nonoperative treatment only, (2) initial nonoperative treatment with surgery only for recurrent dislocations, and (3) immediate surgery. Study Design: Economic and decision analysis; Level of evidence, 2. Methods: A 10-year state-transition Markov model was constructed to compare the cost-utility of the 3 index treatment protocols. Utilities used to define health states were derived from a telephone interview of 60 adolescents with a history of acute patellar dislocations. The probability of transition between each health state was informed by the available literature. Direct costs were estimated using a statewide ambulatory surgery database, and indirect costs were estimated based on parental lost productivity. Effectiveness was expressed in quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). The principal outcome measure was the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). Results: In the base case for our model, nonoperative treatment only was the least costly (

Patellofemoral arthroplasty conversion to total knee arthroplasty: Retrieval analysis and clinical correlation

7300) but also the least effective (5.30 QALYs); initial nonoperative treatment with delayed surgery cost