Saet-Byul Kim

New reference genome sequences of hot pepper reveal the massive evolution of plant disease-resistance genes by retroduplication

BackgroundTransposable elements are major evolutionary forces which can cause new genome structure and species diversification. The role of transposable elements in the expansion of nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich-repeat proteins (NLRs), the major disease-resistance gene families, has been unexplored in plants.ResultsWe report two high-quality de novo genomes (Capsicum baccatum and C. chinense) and an improved reference genome (C. annuum) for peppers. Dynamic genome rearrangements involving translocations among chromosomes 3, 5, and 9 were detected in comparison between C. baccatum and the two other peppers. The amplification of athila LTR-retrotransposons, members of the gypsy superfamily, led to genome expansion in C. baccatum. In-depth genome-wide comparison of genes and repeats unveiled that the copy numbers of NLRs were greatly increased by LTR-retrotransposon-mediated retroduplication. Moreover, retroduplicated NLRs are abundant across the angiosperms and, in most cases, are lineage-specific.ConclusionsOur study reveals that retroduplication has played key roles for the massive emergence of NLR genes including functional disease-resistance genes in pepper plants.

Positive-selection and ligation-independent cloning vectors for large scale in Planta expression for plant functional genomics

Transient expression is an easy, rapid and powerful technique for producing proteins of interest in plants. Recombinational cloning is highly efficient but has disadvantages, including complicated, time consuming cloning procedures and expensive enzymes for large-scale gene cloning. To overcome these limitations, we developed new ligationindependent cloning (LIC) vectors derived from binary vectors including tobacco mosaic virus (pJL-TRBO), potato virus X (pGR106) and the pBI121 vector-based pMBP1. LIC vectors were modified to enable directional cloning of PCR products without restriction enzyme digestion or ligation reactions. In addition, the ccdB gene, which encodes a potent cell-killing protein, was introduced between the two LIC adapter sites in the pJL-LIC, pGR-LIC, and pMBP-LIC vectors for the efficient selection of recombinant clones. This new vector does not require restriction enzymes, alkaline phosphatase, or DNA ligase for cloning. To clone, the three LIC vectors are digested with SnaBI and treated with T4 DNA polymerase, which includes 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity in the presence of only one dNTP (dGTP for the inserts and dCTP for the vector). To make recombinants, the vector plasmid and the insert PCR fragment were annealed at room temperature for 20 min prior to transformation into the host. Bacterial transformation was accomplished with 100% efficiency. To validate the new LIC vector systems, we were used to coexpressed the Phytophthora AVR and potato resistance (R) genes in N. benthamiana by infiltration of Agrobacterium. Coexpressed AVR and R genes in N. benthamiana induced the typical hypersensitive cell death resulting from in vivo interaction of the two proteins. These LIC vectors could be efficiently used for high-throughput cloning and laboratory-scale in planta expression. These vectors could provide a powerful tool for high-throughput transient expression assays for functional genomic studies in plants.

Current Understandings of Plant Nonhost Resistance

Nonhost resistance, a resistance of plant species against all nonadapted pathogens, is considered the most durable and efficient immune system of plants but yet remains elusive. The underlying mechanism of nonhost resistance has been investigated at multiple levels of plant defense for several decades. In this review, we have comprehensively surveyed the latest literature on nonhost resistance in terms of preinvasion, metabolic defense, pattern-triggered immunity, effector-triggered immunity, defense signaling, and possible application in crop protection. Overall, we summarize the current understanding of nonhost resistance mechanisms. Pre- and postinvasion is not much deviated from the knowledge on host resistance, except for a few specific cases. Further insights on the roles of the pattern recognition receptor gene family, multiple interactions between effectors from nonadapted pathogen and plant factors, and plant secondary metabolites in host range determination could expand our knowledge on nonhost resistance and provide efficient tools for future crop protection using combinational biotechnology approaches. [Formula: see text] Copyright

A simple method for screening of plant NBS-LRR genes that confer a hypersensitive response to plant viruses and its application for screening candidate pepper genes against Pepper mottle virus

Plant NBS-LRR genes are abundant and have been increasingly cloned from plant genomes. In this study, a method based on agroinfiltration and virus inoculation was developed for the simple and inexpensive screening of candidate R genes that confer a hypersensitive response to plant viruses. The well-characterized resistance genes Rx and N, which confer resistance to Potato virus X (PVX) and tobamovirus, respectively, were used to optimize a transient expression assay for detection of hypersensitive response in Nicotiana benthamiana. Infectious sap of PVX and Tobacco mosaic virus were used to induce hypersensitive response in Rx- and N-infiltrated leaves, respectively. The transient expression of the N gene induced local hypersensitive response upon infection of another tobamovirus, Pepper mild mottle virus, through both sap and transcript inoculation. When this method was used to screen 99 candidate R genes from pepper, an R gene that confers hypersensitive response to the potyvirus Pepper mottle virus was identified. The method will be useful for the identification of plant R genes that confer resistance to viruses.

Divergent evolution of multiple virus‐resistance genes from a progenitor in Capsicum spp.

Plants have evolved hundreds of nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich domain proteins (NLRs) as potential intracellular immune receptors, but the evolutionary mechanism leading to the ability to recognize specific pathogen effectors is elusive. Here, we cloned Pvr4 (a Potyvirus resistance gene in Capsicum annuum) and Tsw (a Tomato spotted wilt virus resistance gene in Capsicum chinense) via a genome-based approach using independent segregating populations. The genes both encode typical NLRs and are located at the same locus on pepper chromosome 10. Despite the fact that these two genes recognize completely different viral effectors, the genomic structures and coding sequences of the two genes are strikingly similar. Phylogenetic studies revealed that these two immune receptors diverged from a progenitor gene of a common ancestor. Our results suggest that sequence variations caused by gene duplication and neofunctionalization may underlie the evolution of the ability to specifically recognize different effectors. These findings thereby provide insight into the divergent evolution of plant immune receptors.

RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase (NIb) of the Potyviruses Is an Avirulence Factor for the Broad-Spectrum Resistance Gene Pvr4 in Capsicum annuum cv. CM334

Potyviruses are one of the most destructive viral pathogens of Solanaceae plants. In Capsicum annuum landrace CM334, a broad-spectrum gene, Pvr4 is known to be involved in resistance against multiple potyviruses, including Pepper mottle virus (PepMoV), Pepper severe mosaic virus (PepSMV), and Potato virus Y (PVY). However, a potyvirus avirulence factor against Pvr4 has not been identified. To identify the avirulence factor corresponding to Pvr4 in potyviruses, we performed Agrobacterium-mediated transient expressions of potyvirus protein coding regions in potyvirus-resistant (Pvr4) and -susceptible (pvr4) pepper plants. Hypersensitive response (HR) was observed only when a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NIb) of PepMoV, PepSMV, or PVY was expressed in Pvr4-bearing pepper leaves in a genotype-specific manner. In contrast, HR was not observed when the NIb of Tobacco etch virus (TEV), a virulent potyvirus, was expressed in Pvr4-bearing pepper leaves. Our results clearly demonstrate that NIbs of PepMoV, PepSMV, and PVY serve as avirulence factors for Pvr4 in pepper plants.

Global gene expression profiling for fruit organs and pathogen infections in the pepper, Capsicum annuum L.

Hot pepper (Capsicum annuum) is one of the most consumed vegetable crops in the world and useful to human as it has many nutritional and medicinal values. Genomic resources of pepper are publically available since the pepper genomes have been completed and massive data such as transcriptomes have been deposited. Nevertheless, global transcriptome profiling is needed to identify molecular mechanisms related to agronomic traits in pepper, but limited analyses are published. Here, we report the comprehensive analysis of pepper transcriptomes during fruit ripening and pathogen infection. For the ripening, transcriptome data were obtained from placenta and pericarp at seven developmental stages. To reveal global transcriptomic landscapes during infection, leaves at six time points post-infection by one of three pathogens (Phytophthora infestans, Pepper mottle virus, and Tobacco mosaic virus P0 strain) were profiled. The massive parallel transcriptome profiling in this study will serve as a valuable resource for detection of molecular networks of fruit development and disease resistance in Capsicum annuum.