Sally Shortall

Gendered agricultural and rural restructuring: a case study of Northern Ireland

This article focuses on two specific gender related changes that are linked to agricultural and rural restructuring, at least partly motivated by the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The first relates to the increase in part–time farming and women’s increasing off–farm work, linked to falling farm incomes and reduced subsidies. The second relates to women’s participation in rural development policy and practice. Both part–time farming and rural development initiatives can be seen as potentially enhancing gender equality. It could be suggested that off–farm income provides women with financial independence, and places them in a position where they expect and receive more equitable sharing of household decision making power. Rural development initiatives are understood as offering a new form of governance that is more inclusive, more representative, and more transparent. They are seen as providing scope to include women in political structures in a way that has not previously been achieved. However, it is argued in this article that ideological and cultural barriers exist, such that agricultural and rural restructuring unfolds in a gendered fashion, which support the status quo. This is not to suggest that gender or cultural ideologies are static. This is clear in the competing ideologies of equality legislation in Northern Ireland and traditional cultural practice. Despite this struggle, the current face of agricultural and rural restructuring is not one that significantly advances gender equality.

Integrated rural development: Issues arising from the Scottish experience

Abstract Following recent proposals from the EC Commission and UK Ministers for a policy emphasis on integrated rural development, this article begins by considering key elements within a model of endogenous rural development, including the role of partnerships, community involvement, animation and capacity building. The paper then reviews the experience of LEADER1 and local rural partnerships in Scotland, focusing on four key questions that we argue are central to attempts to operationalize integrated rural development, drawing on recent practice in Scotland. These are: the legitimacy of rural development partnerships and local governance; the goals and processes of rural development; the time allocated for pre‐development; and the training of animators. Finally, we suggest some conclusions for future European and national rural development policy and practice.

Farmers Wives: Women who are off-farm breadwinners and the implications for on-farm gender relations

This article examines the fundamental changes that are occurring on farms in Northern Ireland. The income of the agricultural industry shows a dramatic fall every year, and the majority of farms are not viable without some other source of income. This article will demonstrate that it is womens off-farm work that now maintains the farm. The shift to occupying the breadwinner role, and supporting what has been such a traditional industry, allows us to shed an empirical light on the well-established body of research on conjugal relationships, domestic divisions of labour and womens income. Do farm womens increased resources contribute to significant renegotiation of domestic responsibilities and gender role expectations? It will be argued that the literature presumes an individualistic position. Farm households, however, require analysis at the level of the household to explore what off-farm employment by women means for gender role expectations and the division of labour within the farm family.

Rural gender relations: issues and case studies.

Introduction: rural gender studies in North and South, B B Bock, Wageningen University, Netherlands Part 1: Gender and Farming Gender and farming: an overview, S Shortall, Queens University, Belfast, UK Gender Relations and Livelihood Strategies, M Gorman, Self Help Development International, Ireland Commodity production and farm womens work, S Machum, St Thomas University, New Brunswick, Canada Farm women in Slovenia, M Cernic Istenic, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia The informalization of farm employment, A Kritzinger, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Women and sustainable agriculture, S Tufts Rickson, R E Rickson and D Burch, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia Gender at the border, J D Momsen, University of California, USA Part 2: Gender and Rural Migration Gender and rural migration: an overview, B B Bock, Wageningen University, Netherlands The gendered impact of drought, M Alston, Charles Stuart University, Australia Rural idylls or boring places?, M S Haugen and M Villa, Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim, Norway Rural immigrations and female employment, A G Papadopoulos, Harokopeion University, Greece Part 3: Gender and Rural Politics Gender and rural politics: an overview, S Shortall, Queens University, Belfast, UK Gender and rural development budgets, B B Bock and P Derkzen, Wageningen University, Netherlands Collective action among rural women in India, J-A Everingham, University of Queensland, Australia CAP regulations and farm household relations, C Safilios-Rothschildt, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece Part 4: Rurality and Gender Identity Rurality and gender identity: an overview, B B Bock, Wageningen University, Netherlands Rural women and the environment, C Sachs, Penn State University, USA Economic status and gender roles, S Shortall, Queens University, Belfast, UK Rural health and well-being, R Panelli, University of Otago, New Zealand Gender, body and machinery, B Brandth, Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim, Norway Queer countryside revisited, D Bell, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Part 5: Conclusion Conclusion - future directions, S Shortall, Queens University, Belfast, UK.

The Role of Subjectivity and Knowledge Power Struggles in the Formation of Public Policy

There is a growing incentive for sociologists to demonstrate the use-value of their research. Research ‘impact’ is a driver of research funding and a measure of academic standing. Academic debate on this issue has intensified since Burawoy’s (2004) call for a ‘public’ sociology. However, the academy is no longer the sole or primary producer of knowledge and empirical sociologists need to contend with the ‘huge swathes’ of social data that now exist (Savage and Burrows, 2007). This article furthers these debates by considering power struggles between competing forms of knowledge. Using a case study, it specifically considers the power struggle between normative and empirical knowledge, and how providers of knowledge assert legitimacy for their truth claims. The article concludes that the idea of ‘impact’ and ‘use-value’ is extremely complex and depends on the policy context of knowledge power struggles, and on how policy makers want to view the world.

Women in the Field: Women, Farming and Organizations

One striking feature of farming as an occupation is that there are few women who farm in their own right. The passing of land from father to son means that women rarely own land. Their typical entry to farming is through marriage. Womens route of entry to farming affects interpersonal relationships within the family, and also womens role in the public space of farming. Women are under-represented in farming organizations, in training programmes, and in the politics of farming. This article focuses on the position of women within farming organizations and the interaction between (male) farming organizations and womens farming organizations. Farmers are an extremely well-organized occupation and wield considerable political power because of this effective organization. However, farming organizations are almost entirely male. This article examines how women are treated within farming organizations, and also the interaction between (male) farming organizations and womens farming organizations. Drawing on the theory of organizations, I argue that the inclusion of women in farming organizations and the existence of womens farming organizations reinforce gender divisions within agriculture and do not in any way question the understanding of men as farmers, or the political power they hold.

In and Out of the Milking Parlour: A Cross-National Comparison of Gender, the Dairy Industry and the State

Abstract In this article, I will consider the commercialisation of the dairy industry that happened between the mid-19th Century and the early 20th Century in western Europe and North America. Farming throughout Europe and across the western world is marked by diversity. This is partly due to such factors as climate, soil, and distance from centres of consumption, but also to the fact that agriculture is a social construction. As Long and van der Ploeg (1994) note, the way agricultural practice is organised depends heavily on the actors involved in it, and the different social, economic, cultural and historical relations in which it is embedded. Long and van der Ploeg gently remind rural scholars that the behaviour of relevant actors interacts with the actions of the state and institutions to create particular and diverse outcomes. What is remarkable about womens nineteenth Century role in the dairy industry, is the uniformity of change that occurred in different countries. I argue that this was primarily the result of their relationship to property, and their limited resources to successfully organise around their grievances. The economic power of property ownership is very clear throughout this article. Although women had responsibility for dairying, they did not control the resources of the dairy industry. For a capitalist state committed to capital accumulation, it was logical to ally with those who had the economic power to invest in the industry. The actions of the state were easily legitimised by reference to the Victorian ideology of the time. While some examples of resistance are outlined throughout the article, women in dairying were organisationally outflanked; they did not have the resources, or organisational power to resist with any significant consequence.

Civil society as a contested field of meanings

Purpose – During recent years, the concept of civil society, particularly global civil society, has come to the fore in both academia and policy circles. A key component of recent theoretical and policy research is the attempt to do international comparative research on the meaning of civil society. The purpose of this paper is to argue that the language and the terminology used to describe the agents of civil society are reflective of cultural and historical contexts of societies, have distinct meanings and cannot be used interchangeably. Design/methodology/approach – In different national contexts, the key agents of civil society are referred to differently; nonprofit sector, voluntary and community sector, third sector and social economy. In comparative studies, scholars often list these concepts to indicate that they recognise that the agents of civil society are referred to differently in different societies. The article offers a socio-historical analysis of each concept. It is concluded that teasing out the differences, as well as the similarities, between the nonprofit sector, voluntary and community sector, third sector and social economy, is crucial to robust comparative research on civil society. Findings – This paper exposes a number of limitations of each of the terminologies used to describe civil society. They all present a much more limiting notion of civil society than that proposed by the founding fathers. None seem to capture the range of civil associations in any society. Yet, assumptions are made that the terminologies used have similar meanings rather than attempting to clarify and define exactly what is being written or described. This is exacerbated by the interchangeable usage of nonprofit/third sector/community and voluntary sector/social economy. In order to progress beyond culturally specific understandings of civil society, it is necessary to examine the terminology used and how it emanates from a specific cultural and political context. Having a clear understanding of the language used and what it signifies is crucial to robust cross-national comparative research. Originality/value – This paper examines context specific understandings of civil society and the terminology used to define it; a question not previously addressed. It is hoped that this article will generate much needed further debate on cross-national meanings of civil society.

Gender mainstreaming and the Common Agricultural Policy

While there are many case studies looking at gender mainstreaming in national contexts, this article offers a pan-European perspective to examine how a stated commitment to gender equality at this meta-level works in practice. The European Unions (EU) stated commitment to gender mainstreaming the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is critically reviewed. The article reviews theoretical literature on gender mainstreaming, considers the position of women in agriculture across Europe, and examines efforts by the EU to gender mainstream the CAP. It argues that at best, gender mainstreaming focuses on the symptoms of gender inequality in agriculture rather than the causes. Because of this, gender mainstreaming cannot be transformative in this context. Little thought has been given to the practical difficulties of actually gender mainstreaming a policy such as the CAP. The EUs priority for the CAP focuses on the mainstream business goal of a viable agricultural industry and does not pay any heed to gender inequalities in agriculture. In short, the stated commitment to gender mainstreaming is empty rhetoric.

Introduction: rural women in Europe: the impact of place and culture on gender mainstreaming the European Rural Development Programme

Gender relations are socially constructed. Space and culture are key factors in this process. We consider how womens identity is constructed in rural areas of Europe. In particular, we examine the ability of gender mainstreaming to advance gender equality through the EU Rural Development Programme – the single most expensive European policy. We offer both overarching theoretical perspectives and specific case studies.