Sam C. Okoroafo

Internationalization of Family Businesses: Evidence from Northwest Ohio, U.S.A.

This study determines the extent of internationalization (i.e., global business attitudes and activities) of family businesses. A survey of 187 family businesses from northwest Ohio finds that family businesses do not regularly monitor the international marketplace or integrate global developments into domestic decisions. Although a small pool of businesses currently has ties with family businesses in foreign countries, many more would like to develop such ties. The study finds that if a family business does not get involved in foreign markets in the first and second generations, it is unlikely to do so in later generations. The majority of family businesses does not develop sources in foreign countries. The family businesses that do source from overseas markets do so mostly for cost and quality benefits. Approximately half of family businesses sold their products in foreign markets primarily via exporting and joint ventures.

On the way towards developing a global screening model

Aims to identify and test criteria useful in screening potential worldwide opportunities. International business literature suggested the criteria which were applied in six product samples to determine whether the same criteria could be used across products. Accepts this proposition. Also shows that four criteria: product‐specific market size growth, indirect market size, trade, and level of economic development contributed most to the discriminating capabilities among potential markets.

Impact of Marketing Strategy on Performance: Empirical Evidence from a Liberalized Developing Country

Examines the impact and significance of marketing strategy variables on performance in a developing country which has instituted market reform measures. Changes in marketing strategy and performance were expected. Results were obtained from a survey of chief executive officers of the top 200 manufacturing companies in Nigeria. The findings suggest that customer service and reinvestment of profits had a significant positive effect on market performance. However, reduction of subsidiaries and employee were negatively related to performance.

Modes of entering foreign markets

Abstract This article presents a four-step strategic model for industrial multinational firms to use to make decisions concerning modes of operations in foreign markets. International managers concerned about long-term entry structures need to determine the feasible modes of operation, arrange modes of operation in a continuum, choose a mode of operation substitution pattern, and choose mode of entry.

Strategic and performance issues associated with mode of entry substitution patterns

Investigates the determinants, decision process, and performance of mode of entry substitution patterns used by multinational firms. Based on past research, two paths (incremental and non‐incremental/zigzag) for adopting entry modes in foreign product markets were conceptualized. Responses primarily via mail survey from executives of 77 Canadian and 108 US manufacturing firms verified usage of the conceptualized paths. Further, it was found that executives do preconceptualize their substitution pattern and that such preconceptualization is useful in strategic planning. Also, the executives identified choice variables critical to each pattern choice and some significant path discriminators. Finally, executives are satisfied with the performance of their chosen substitution paths.

Marketing orientation, practices, and performance of Sub-Sahara African firms : A review

ABSTRACT The relevance and application of the marketing concept has been an issue in international marketing. In the last twenty years, many African nations have undertaken to reform their economic systems to market driven from centrally planned. Economic policies such as floating of currencies, encouraging foreign investments, and privatization, to mention a few, have been adopted. The changed economic systems make marketing performance more relevant. So many studies have sought to determine whether firms-domestic and foreign in African are applying the marketing concept. There has been a critical mass of these articles that a review of the literature is now appropriate. This article reviews issues and finding, and suggests gaps in the literature.

Implementing international countertrade: A dyadic approach

Abstract This article discusses a comprehensive approach that industrial managers can use to identify and implement international countertrade deals. This model recognizes two key participants in the countertrade deal, firms (micro) and countries (macro). Their characteristics, motivations, policies, and strategies form the basis of the six step strategic approach discussed. This dyadic approach is derived from industrial organization and macroeconomic theories and represents a unique blend and application to countertrade.

An Application of Bagozzi′s Exchange Model to Integrate of Countertrade Research

As the use of countertrade increases and countertrade research proliferates, it is necessary to integrate the knowledge to document what has been done and identify gaps for future research. Proposes Bagozzi′s exchange framework as a model for integrating research and identifying situational contingencies, characteristics of social actors and third parties, and social influence between actors as the determinants of exchange. Managerial implications are also identified.

Antecedents of Belief in Global Citizenship: A Two-Country Empirical Investigation

ABSTRACT This research contributes to the existing literature by investigating the antecedents of belief in global citizenship. Previous literature in global brand management has provided strong evidence of the importance of perceived quality and social prestige of global brands in influencing consumers’ evaluations of global brands. Accordingly, the authors’ model focuses on the perceived quality and social prestige of global brands as antecedents of consumers’ belief in global citizenship. In addition, they examine the direct and indirect effects of consumer ethnocentricity and cultural openness on consumers’ belief in global citizenship. They empirically examine this framework within a rich cross-cultural context using samples from the United States and India (developed and developing countries). The proposed model suggests that perceived quality and social prestige of global brands are mediators of the relationship between ethnocentricity and cultural openness and consumers’ belief in global citizenship. They followed Gerbing and Andersons two-step approach to develop a measurement model with an acceptable fit to the data and then conducted a structural model to test the hypothesized relationships. The authors conducted χ2 difference tests to examine the structure of their hypothesized relationships across the United States and India. The results support partial mediation for perceived quality and social prestige of global brands on the relationship between ethnocentricity and cultural openness and consumers’ belief in global citizenship. Furthermore, they demonstrate some interesting differences in the relationships in the model across the two samples.

An Examination of Cultural Influences in Green Environmental Behaviour in India and the United States

Environmental issues is on the forefront in many discussions from both business and consumer perspectives. However, not everyone is pursuing pro-environmental sustainable behaviors. This research contributes to the literature by investigating some cultural antecedents of environmental concerns and pro-environmental behavior in two different, somewhat dichotomous cultures. Our proposed model suggests that cultural differences measured at the individual level influence consumer’s environmental concerns and subsequently their pro-environmental sustainable behaviors. We empirically examined our model within a rich cross-cultural context using samples from India and the United States. When examined at the macro-cultural level, Individualism and collectivism are considered at the opposite ends of one continuum. However, at the individual level, existing research suggest that individualism and collectivism represent separate dimensions. That is, both exist within the same culture and the same individual can exhibit both values at the same time across different situations. Consistent with such conceptualization, our findings show that at the individual level and for this type of perceptions and behaviors both individualism and collectivism are strongly related to green consciousness. Results show a negative strong influence for individualism on environmental consciousness while we find strong positive influence for collectivism on environmental consciousness across the two countries. With regard to harmony and mastery, our results show that while harmony was a strong and significant predictor of environmental consciousness in the United States and India, mastery did not significantly influence environmental consciousness in both countries. Such findings suggest that overall cultural influences and motivates people in different ways in different cultures depending on the type or the context of behavior. Results suggest that while the United States in general is a society that is driven more by mastery orientation, our results suggest that at the individual level, individuals might be driven by different orientations depending on the context of decision and consumption. Finally, our results show that environmental consciousness was positively related to both green consumerism behavior and active ecological behavior. From a theoretical perspective, we investigated the role that cultural factors influence consumer environmental concerns and behaviors. More importantly, while previous research focused on such differences at the country level we investigated such issues at the individual consumer level. Our findings are interesting and suggest the importance of examining such cultural factors at the individual level rather than just at the country level as well as signal the importance of examining the different role that such cultural factors play across different consumption contexts. Even for consumers in developing countries, like the United States, that are categorized as individualistic and mastery oriented societies are capable of being influenced by collectivism and harmony orientation at the individual level and within some contexts (e.g., environmental issues).