Sameen Ruqia Imadi

Effects of Pesticides on Environment

Pesticides are used to kill the pests and insects which attack on crops and harm them. Different kinds of pesticides have been used for crop protection for centuries. Pesticides benefit the crops; however, they also impose a serious negative impact on the environment. Excessive use of pesticides may lead to the destruction of biodiversity. Many birds, aquatic organisms and animals are under the threat of harmful pesticides for their survival. Pesticides are a concern for sustainability of environment and global stability. This chapter intends to discuss about pesticides, their types, usefulness and the environmental concerns related to them. Pollution as a result to overuse of pesticides and the long term impact of pesticides on the environment are also discussed in the chapter. Moving towards the end, the chapter discusses the methods to eradicate the use of pesticides and finally it looks forward towards the future impacts of the pesticide use the future of the world after eradicating pesticides.

Soil Pollution and Remediation

The planet Earth is suffering from an ever-escalating rate of pollution. It was not until the twentieth century that mankind was seriously concerned about pollution. But now pollution has reached to such a significant level that is influencing all ecological compartments. There are many types of pollution. Among these most important are i.e. soil pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, and water pollution. Concerns about soil pollution have increased in the recent decades. Soil pollution has deteriorated large areas of agricultural land around the globe. It is due to soil pollution that soil biodiversity is declining. Human health is also at risk due to high concentration of pollutants found in soil. Vegetation grown on polluted soil is also contaminated to varying degrees. Simple and cost effective solution to soil pollution is bioremediation. It is an efficient technique in which hyper-accumulator plants and native plants along with bacteria and other microorganisms are grown in polluted soils. These organisms absorb and or degrade pollutants and enhance soil quality. As the bioavailability of nutrients increase, soil functioning improves. Bioremediation can be performed using a large number of techniques including biostimulation, bioaugmentation, phytoremediation, mycoremediation etc. This chapter deals with soil pollution, its possible causes and adverse environmental effects. The chapter is concluded with bioremediation as a potential alternative for soil cleanup with possible future recommendations.

Phytoremediation of Saline Soils for Sustainable Agricultural Productivity

Salinity is one of the major environmental factors that severely affects agricultural productivity. A large amount of land is unavailable for cultivation because of this salinity problem. Much research has been done to find out methods by which saline soils can be improved to ensure global food security. Fruitful results of this research came with the arrival of a new technique, phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is a biological technique that uses plants to improve deteriorated soils. Plants, which can tolerate high salt content, are used for remediation of saline soils. Suitable plants that can enhance calcium levels and decrease sodium levels in soil are cultivated to result in improvement of these types of soils. After soil improvement, plants with low tolerance of salts can be cultivated efficiently. This review focuses on the physical and chemical characteristics of saline soils, ways to remove salt from saline soils, increasing soil fertility, selection of plants for phytoremediation, and limitations of this application. Finally, this review is intended to put some light on future prospects of phytoremediating the saline soils.

Soil Microflora – An Extensive Research

Soil is the most complicated biomaterial present on earth. It is composed of a variety of substances and provides a habitat to various organisms. Different chemical reactions take place in soil that ensures the sustainability of life. Microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, actinomyces and algae are widely distributed in soil. These natural micro flora have several advantages. They contribute to the growth and development of plants, decomposition of organic materials, nutrient cycling, soil nitrification, sustenance of pedological system and production of bioactive compounds. Soil fungi develop mutualistic associations with plants and increase their surface area for absorption. Rhizosphere of soil, the area in which micro flora is present, is rich not only in diverse micro flora but also plant roots and nutrients. Soil pollution and anthropogenic activities used for higher yield of agricultural crops negatively affect the soil micro flora. Pesticides kill micro flora and reduce soil biodiversity. The focus of this chapter is on the advantages of natural flora of soil and various factors causing their degradation. The chapter also sheds light on the changes in micro floral communities due to changes in environment. Towards the end, the future perspectives in which soil micro flora can be used for further benefit of mankind have also been discussed.

Extraction of Lignin from Biomass for Biofuel Production

With the increasing population on planet Earth, the demand for the production of fuel and energy is increasing day by day. Second-generation biofuels are much more efficient as compared to first-generation biofuels as they use agricultural residues and waste products as biomass for the generation of biofuel. These biofuels need huge energy, time, cost, and potential for pretreatment processes. As the biomass is mainly composed of cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses, it needs to be treated for removal and extraction of hemicelluloses and lignin, respectively. Biofuel generation is dependent on the quality of biomass used. Different input biomasses for secondary fuel generation include wheat straw, barley straw, sugarcane bagasse, rapeseed residues, switchgrass, and lignocellulosic waste products. This chapter discusses second-generation biofuels, extraction methods of lignin from biomass, and advantages and limitations of lignin extraction from biomass. As soon as the oil refineries are replaced by biorefineries, societies will be benefited by switching from hydrocarbon feedstocks to renewable carbohydrates as a source of energy and biofuels. Finally, the chapter intends to look forward into the future research on biotechnological fuel development.

Bamboo Fiber Processing, Properties, and Applications

Bamboo fiber is a cellulosic fiber that is regenerated from bamboo plant. It is a great prospective green fiber with outstanding biodegradable textile material, having strength comparable to conventional glass fibers. Bamboo used for fiber preparation is usually 3–4 years old. Fiber is produced through alkaline hydrolysis and multi-phase bleaching of bamboo stems and leaves followed by chemical treatment of starchy pulp generated during the process. Bamboo fiber has various micro-gaps, which make it softer than cotton and increase its moisture absorption. They are elastic, environment-friendly, and biodegradable. The fiber is bacteriostatic, antifungal, antibacterial, hypoallergenic, hydroscopic, natural deodorizer, and resistant against ultraviolet light. Furthermore, it is highly durable, stable and tough and has substantial tensile strength. Due to its versatile properties, bamboo fibers are used mainly in textile industry for making attires, towels, and bathrobes. Due to its antibacterial nature, it is used for making bandages, masks, nurse wears, and sanitary napkins. UV-proof, antibiotic and bacteriostatic curtains, television covers, and wallpapers and many other things are also prepared from bamboo fibers to lessen the effects of bacteria and harm of ultra violet radiations on human skin. Bamboo fibers are also used for decoration purpose.

Medicinal Plants Against Cancer

Medicinal plants possess chemical constituents and produce secondary metabolites having countless benefits regarding various ailments. The extract of these plants can act as anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, anti-allergic, anti-cancerous, analgesic, and antidiabetic. Due to these medicinal properties, these plants have been used since centuries for the cure and prevention of different kind of diseases. Derivatives from the medicinal plants and their extracts are effective in small amounts, economical, and safe to use, with negligible side effects. Moreover, medicinal plants are easily accessible and have better compatibility. Review of the literature proves that countless medicinal plants have been exploited for their antitumor as well as anticancer potential. This chapter intends to focus on these plants showing medicinal effects against cancer and tumor. The chapter digs into the detail methodologies through which daily usage plants can be explored for medicinal purposes, the preparation of extracts, and the physiological responses of body towards these extracts.

Biotechnology and Bioengineering in Astrobiology: Towards a New Habitat for Us

Abstract Human kind is optimistic about the presence of alien civilizations in the outer space. The scientists are still working on the means to detect and make the first contact with the extraterrestrials. The current focus is on the search of nonintelligent microbial life forms. Moreover, efforts are underway to identify the optimum conditions to support life on other planets. Before the dawn of the space age, the moon was considered to be just a barren land formed by the ancient impact craters. Similarly Mars was just a distant planet and Venus was boiling cauldron of molten rock shrouded in dense and poisonous atmosphere. Significant progress has, however, been made after the recent discoveries in the field of astrobiology, astrobiotechnology, and synthetic space biology. This chapter presents the conditions that support life in the outer space. Techniques employed for the identification and detection of organic molecules, fossilized microorganisms, and minerals have also been discussed. Moreover, the potential of life outside earth with reference to the extremophile organisms has been addressed. Finally, the future role of astrobiology in finding new home for the living organisms has been discussed.

Oilseed crops: Present scenario and future prospects

Oilseed crops belong to numerous plant families and their seeds are used not only as a source of oil but also as raw materials for various oleo‐chemical industries. The raw materials act as a renewable source of energy and are associated with power generation (Jankowski & Budzynski, 2003). Among various oilseed crops, the preferred ones are soybean, sesame, safflower, sunflower, groundnut, and castor (Weiss, 2000). The crops of sunflower, soybean, and canola offer good management options for irrigation reduction, thus enhancing the benefits of reduced input costs of these oilseed crops (Aiken & Lamm, 2006). There exists a positive correlation between soil water extraction and rooting depth in oilseed crops. The tap root, along with the well‐formed root growth system of safflower, allows this oilseed crop to extract moisture at greater depths from the soil. When safflower water requirements are satisfied with 68.6% and 78.4% water content, the crop provides the yield of 392 kgha after only one turn of irrigation. Safflower yields 762 kgha with two irrigations (Kar et al., 2007). Oilseed crops like soybean, sunflower, and canola are susceptible to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a fungal pathogen that is responsible for a reduction in the yield of these crops. The application of sulfur as fertilizer on the oilseed crops results in increased concentration of oil as well as protein content of the Brassica seeds (Malhi et al., 2006). For the production of a ton of oilseed, approximately 12 Kg sulfur is required (Ghosh et al., 2000). Some 23.5% of protein content has been observed in canola after the application of 80 kgha of nitrogen but this did not play a significant role in increasing the oil content (Ahmad et al., 2007). There has been an increased risk of blackleg in canola fields when crops are planted adjacent to canola stubble that is six months mature. To avoid serious damage by blackleg in canola fields, it is recommended that the crops should be sown in such a way that there is a distance of at least 500 m from last season’s canola stubble (Marcroft et al., 2004). Among the various oilseed crops, there are some anti‐nutritive compounds such as condensed tannins, inositol phosphates, and glucosinolates, etc. All such anti‐nutritive compounds are responsible for lowering the nutritive value of oilseed crops. In most situations these compounds do not harm the crop plants (Matthaus & Angelini, 2005). Advances in plant technology and the advent of metabolic engineering have enabled the modification of oilseed crops, thus establishing transgenic crop plants. Such transgenic oilseed crops have novel biosynthetic genes taken from noncommercial plants that provide the oilseed plants with good fatty acids (Thelen & Ohlrogge, 2002). To modify the fatty acid content Oilseed crops: Present scenario and future prospects

Aluminum Toxicity in Plants: An Overview

Abstract Aluminum is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s soil. Many plants are sensitive to micromolar concentrations of this metal. Most of the aluminum in soil is bound by ligands and thus occur in nonphytotoxic forms such as aluminosilicates and aluminum precipitates. Aluminum toxicity exists in acidic soils and low pH leads to solubilization, resulting in toxicity of aluminum to plants. Leaves, roots, and plant morphology are widely affected because of its toxicity. This chapter discusses the mechanisms involved in aluminum phytotoxicity, along with its cytogenetic effects. Focusing on the major interactions of aluminum with nutrient metabolism and tolerance in plants against aluminum toxicity, this chapter also discusses the uptake and transport of aluminum throughout the plant cells, biochemistry of aluminum phytotoxicity, and interactions of aluminum with calmodulin.Aluminum is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s soil. Many plants are sensitive to micromolar concentrations of this metal. Most of the aluminum in soil is bound by ligands and thus occur in nonphytotoxic forms such as aluminosilicates and aluminum precipitates. Aluminum toxicity exists in acidic soils and low pH leads to solubilization, resulting in toxicity of aluminum to plants. Leaves, roots, and plant morphology are widely affected because of its toxicity. This chapter discusses the mechanisms involved in aluminum phytotoxicity, along with its cytogenetic effects. Focusing on the major interactions of aluminum with nutrient metabolism and tolerance in plants against aluminum toxicity, this chapter also discusses the uptake and transport of aluminum throughout the plant cells, biochemistry of aluminum phytotoxicity, and interactions of aluminum with calmodulin.