Samuel J. Fountain

An intracellular P2X receptor required for osmoregulation in Dictyostelium discoideum

P2X receptors are membrane ion channels gated by extracellular ATP that are found widely in vertebrates, but not previously in microbes. Here we identify a weakly related gene in the genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum, and show, with the use of heterologous expression in human embryonic kidney cells, that it encodes a membrane ion channel activated by ATP (30–100 μM). Site-directed mutagenesis revealed essential conservation of structure–function relations with P2X receptors of higher organisms. The receptor was insensitive to the usual P2X antagonists but was blocked by nanomolar concentrations of Cu2+ ions. In D. discoideum, the receptor was found on intracellular membranes, with prominent localization to an osmoregulatory organelle, the contractile vacuole. Targeted disruption of the gene in D. discoideum resulted in cells that were unable to regulate cell volume in hypotonic conditions. Cell swelling in these mutant cells was accompanied by a marked inhibition of contractile vacuole emptying. These findings demonstrate a new functional role for P2X receptors on intracellular organelles, in this case in osmoregulation.

Human TRPC5 channel activated by a multiplicity of signals in a single cell

Here we explore the activation mechanisms of human TRPC5, a putative cationic channel that was cloned from a region of the X chromosome associated with mental retardation. No basal activity was evident but activity was induced by carbachol stimulation of muscarinic receptors independently of Ca2+ release. This is ‘receptor activation’, as described for mouse TRPC5. In addition, and in the absence of receptor stimulation, extracellular gadolinium (0.1 mm) activated TRPC5, an effect that was mimicked by 5–20 mm extracellular Ca2+ with intracellular Ca2+ buffered. We refer to this as ‘external ionic activation’. TRPC5 was also activated by modest elevation of [Ca2+]i in the absence of GTP –‘calcium activation’. A putative fourth activation mechanism is a signal from depleted intracellular Ca2+ stores. Consistent with this idea, human TRPC5 was activated by a standard store‐depletion/Ca2+ re‐entry protocol, an effect that was difficult to explain by calcium activation. Multiplicity of TRPC5 activation was demonstrated in single cells and thus not dependent on heterogeneity of expression levels or cellular context. Therefore, human TRPC5 is activated by a range of stimuli, avoiding dependence on a single critical activator as in many other ion channels. One of these stimuli would seem to be a change in Ca2+ handling by the endoplasmic reticulum.

Permeation Properties of a P2X Receptor in the Green Algae Ostreococcus tauri

We have cloned a P2X receptor (OtP2X) from the green algae Ostreococcus tauri. The 42-kDa receptor shares ∼28% identity with human P2X receptors and 23% with the Dictyostelium P2X receptor. ATP application evoked flickery single channel openings in outside-out membrane patches from human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing OtP2X. Whole-cell recordings showed concentration-dependent cation currents reversing close to zero mV; ATP gave a half-maximal current at 250 μm. αβ-Methylene-ATP evoked only small currents in comparison to ATP (EC50 > 5 mm). 2′,3′-O-(4-Benzoylbenzoyl)-ATP, βγ-imido-ATP, ADP, and several other nucleotide triphosphates did not activate any current. The currents evoked by 300 μm ATP were not inhibited by 100 μm suramin, pyridoxal-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2′,4′-disulfonic acid, 2′,3′-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenol)-ATP, or copper. Ion substitution experiments indicated permeabilities relative to sodium with the rank order calcium >choline >Tris >tetraethylammonium >N-methyl-d-glucosamine. However, OtP2X had a low relative calcium permeability (PCa/PNa = 0.4) in comparison with other P2X receptors. This was due at least in part to the presence of an asparagine residue (Asn353) at a position in the second transmembrane domain in place of the aspartate that is completely conserved in all other P2X receptor subunits, because replacement of Asn353 with aspartate increased calcium permeability by ∼50%. The results indicate that the ability of ATP to gate cation permeation across membranes exists in cells that diverged in evolutionary terms from animals about 1 billion years ago.

An evolutionary history of P2X receptors

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an ancient and fundamentally important biological molecule involved in both intracellular and extracellular activities. P2X ionotropic and P2Y metabotropic receptors have been cloned and characterised in mammals. ATP plays a central physiological role as a transmitter molecule in processes including the sensation of pain, taste, breathing and inflammation via the activation of P2X receptors. P2X receptors are structurally distinct from glutamate and Cys-loop/nicotinic receptors and form the third major class of ligand-gated ion channel. Yet, despite the importance of P2X receptors, both as physiological mediators and therapeutic targets, the evolutionary origins and phylogenicity of ATP signalling via P2X receptors remain unclear.

A C-terminal lysine that controls human P2X4 receptor desensitization

Receptor desensitization can determine the time course of transmitter action and profoundly alter sensitivity to drugs. Among P2X receptors, ion currents through homomeric P2X4 receptors exhibit intermediate desensitization when compared with P2X1 and P2X3 (much faster) and P2X2 and P2X7 (slower). We recorded membrane currents in HEK293 cells transfected to express the human P2X4 receptor. The decline in current during a 4-s application of ATP (100 μm) was about 30%; this was not different during whole-cell or perforated patch recording. Alanine-scanning mutagenesis of the intracellular C terminus identified two positions with much accelerated desensitization kinetics (Lys373: 92% and Tyr374: 74%). At position 373, substitution of Arg or Cys also strongly accelerated desensitization: however, in the case of K373C the wild-type phenotype was fully restored by adding ethylammonium methanethiosulfonate. At position 374, phenylalanine could replace tyrosine. These results indicate that wild-type desensitization properties requires an aromatic moiety at position 374 and an amino rather than a guanidino group at position 373. These residues lie between previously identified motifs involved in membrane trafficking (YXXXK and YXXGL) and implicates the C-terminal also in rearrangements leading to channel closing during the presence of agonist.

Thr339-to-Serine Substitution in Rat P2X2 Receptor Second Transmembrane Domain Causes Constitutive Opening and Indicates a Gating Role for Lys308

P2X2 receptors are ATP-gated ion channels widely expressed by neurons. Thr339 lies in the second of the two transmembrane domains of the rat P2X2 receptor protein, and is likely to be close to the narrowest part of the pore. Single-channel and whole-cell recording after expression in human embryonic kidney 293 cells showed that P2X2[T339S] receptors had pronounced spontaneous channel openings that were never seen in wild-type P2X2 receptors. P2X2[T339S] receptors were 10-fold more sensitive than wild type to exogenous ATP, and αβmeATP also increased channel opening. Two conserved ectodomain lysine residues (Lys69 and Lys308) are critical for function and have been proposed to contribute to the ATP binding site of P2X receptors. The spontaneous opening of P2X2[K69A/T339S] receptors was not different than that seen in P2X2[T339S], but for P2X2[K308A/T339S] the spontaneous activity was absent. Suramin, which is a noncompetitive antagonist at wild-type P2X2 receptors, had a pronounced agonist action at both P2X2[T339S] and P2X2[K69A/T339S] receptors but not at P2X2[K308A/T339S]. 2′,3′-O-O-(2,4,6-Trinitrophenyl)-ATP (TNP-ATP), which is a competitive agonist at wild-type receptors, was also an agonist at P2X2[T339S] receptors, but not at either double mutant. The results indicate that the T339S mutation substantially destabilizes the closed channel and suggest an important role in channel gating. The correction of this gating defect, in the absence of any agonist, by the second mutation K308A shows that Lys308 is also involved in channel gating. A similar interpretation can account for the results with suramin and TNP-ATP.

Functional up-regulation of KCNA gene family expression in murine mesenteric resistance artery smooth muscle

This study focused on the hypothesis that KCNA genes (which encode KVα1 voltage‐gated K+ channels) have enhanced functional expression in smooth muscle cells of a primary determinant of peripheral resistance – the small mesenteric artery. Real‐time PCR methodology was developed to measure cell type‐specific in situ gene expression. Profiles were determined for arterial myocyte expression of RNA species encoding KVα1 subunits as well as KVβ1, KVα2.1, KVγ9.3, BKCaα1 and BKCaβ1. The seven major KCNA genes were expressed and more readily detected in endothelium‐denuded mesenteric resistance artery compared with thoracic aorta; quantification revealed dramatic differential expression of one to two orders of magnitude. There was also four times more RNA encoding KVα2.1 but less or similar amounts encoding KVβ1, KVγ9.3, BKCaα1 and BKCaβ1. Patch‐clamp recordings from freshly isolated smooth muscle cells revealed dominant KVα1 K+ current and current density twice as large in mesenteric cells. Therefore, we suggest the increased RNA production of the resistance artery impacts on physiological function, although there is quantitatively less K+ current than might be expected. The mechanism conferring up‐regulated expression of KCNA genes may be common to all the gene family and play a functional role in the physiological control of blood pressure.

Molecular Shape, Architecture, and Size of P2X4 Receptors Determined Using Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer and Electron Microscopy

P2X receptors are ATP-gated nonselective cation channels with important physiological roles. However, their structures are poorly understood. Here, we analyzed the architecture of P2X receptors using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy and direct structure determination using electron microscopy. FRET efficiency measurements indicated that the distance between the C-terminal tails of P2X4 receptors was 5.6 nm. Single particle analysis of purified P2X4 receptors was used to determine the three-dimensional structure at a resolution of 21Å; the orientation of the particle with respect to the membrane was assigned by labeling the intracellular C termini with 1.8-nm gold particles and the carbohydrate-rich ectodomain with lectin. We found that human P2X4 is a globular torpedo-like molecule with an approximate volume of 270 nm3 and a compact propeller-shaped ectodomain. In this structure, the distance between the centers of the gold particles was 6.1 nm, which closely matches FRET data. Thus, our data provide the first views of the architecture, shape, and size of single P2X receptors, furthering our understanding of this important family of ligand-gated ion channels.

Constitutive lysosome exocytosis releases ATP and engages P2Y receptors in human monocytes.

Summary Elucidating mechanisms by which Ca2+ signals are generated by monocytes is important for understanding monocyte function in health and disease. We have investigated mechanisms underlying Ca2+ signals generated following disruption of lysosomes by exposure to the cathepsin C substrate glycyl-L-phenylalanine-&bgr;-napthylamide (GPN). Exposure to 0.2 mM GPN resulted in robust increases in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in the absence of extracellular Ca2+. The response was antagonised by thapsigargin and evoked capacitative Ca2+ entry. Dantrolene-sensitive Ca2+ responses were observed at higher concentrations of GPN (0.4 mM) but not at 0.2 mM. Strikingly, GPN-evoked Ca2+ responses and &bgr;-hexosaminidase secretion were inhibited by the ATPase/ADPase apyrase. Simultaneous measurement of [Ca2+]i and extracellular ATP revealed a concomitant secretion of ATP during GPN-evoked Ca2+ signalling. Furthermore, the ability of GPN to raise [Ca2+]i was inhibited by P2Y receptor antagonists or by inhibiting vesicular exocytosis with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). NEM treatment was associated with an inability of GPN to trigger ATP secretion, a drop in baseline [Ca2+]i and reduction in extracellular ATP concentration. Antagonism of purinergic signalling also caused a reduction in baseline [Ca2+]i. In summary, these data suggest that P2Y receptor activation contributes significantly to GPN-evoked Ca2+ signalling, and that constitutive secretion of lysosomal ATP is a major determinant of Ca2+ homeostasis in monocytes. Lysosomal Ca2+ stores can communicate with ER Ca2+ stores either directly through activation of ryanodine receptors, or indirectly through release of ATP and engagement of P2Y receptors.

A mechanism of intracellular P2X receptor activation.

Background: P2X receptors are localized both to the cell surface and within intracellular vacuoles. Mechanisms activating intracellular receptors are unclear. Results: The P2X receptor ATP binding site faces into the vacuole lumen. ATP translocation triggers P2X receptor-dependent release of calcium. Conclusion: Vacuolar P2X receptors are luminal ATP sensors releasing stored calcium in response to luminal ATP accumulation. Significance: Intracellular P2X receptors are calcium release channels. P2X receptors (P2XRs) are ATP-activated calcium-permeable ligand-gated ion channels traditionally viewed as sensors of extracellular ATP during diverse physiological processes including pain, inflammation, and taste. However, in addition to a cell surface residency P2XRs also populate the membranes of intracellular compartments, including mammalian lysosomes, phagosomes, and the contractile vacuole (CV) of the amoeba Dictyostelium. The function of intracellular P2XRs is unclear and represents a major gap in our understanding of ATP signaling. Here, we exploit the genetic versatility of Dictyostelium to investigate the effects of physiological concentrations of ATP on calcium signaling in isolated CVs. Within the CV, an acidic calcium store, P2XRs are orientated to sense luminal ATP. Application of ATP to isolated vacuoles leads to luminal translocation of ATP and release of calcium. Mechanisms of luminal ATP translocation and ATP-evoked calcium release share common pharmacology, suggesting that they are linked processes. The ability of ATP to mobilize stored calcium is reduced in vacuoles isolated from P2XAR knock-out amoeba and ablated in cells devoid of P2XRs. Pharmacological inhibition of luminal ATP translocation or depletion of CV calcium attenuates CV function in vivo, manifesting as a loss of regulatory cell volume decrease following osmotic swelling. We propose that intracellular P2XRs regulate vacuole activity by acting as calcium release channels, activated by translocation of ATP into the vacuole lumen.