Samuel J. Machin

Frequency and prevention of symptomless deep-vein thrombosis in long-haul flights: a randomised trial

BACKGROUND The true frequency of deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) during long-haul air travel is unknown. We sought to determine the frequency of DVT in the lower limb during long-haul economy-class air travel and the efficacy of graduated elastic compression stockings in its prevention. METHODS We recruited 89 male and 142 female passengers over 50 years of age with no history of thromboembolic problems. Passengers were randomly allocated to one of two groups: one group wore class-I below-knee graduated elastic compression stockings, the other group did not. All the passengers made journeys lasting more than 8 h per flight (median total duration 24 h), returning to the UK within 6 weeks. Duplex ultrasonography was used to assess the deep veins before and after travel. Blood samples were analysed for two specific common gene mutations, factor V Leiden (FVL) and prothrombin G20210A (PGM), which predispose to venous thromboembolism. Asensitive D-dimer assay was used to screen for the development of recent thrombosis. FINDINGS 12/116 passengers (10%; 95% CI 4.8-16.0%) developed symptomless DVT in the calf (five men, seven women). None of these passengers wore elastic compression stockings, and two were heterozygous for FVL. Four further patients who wore elastic compression stockings, had varicose veins and developed superficial thrombophlebitis. One of these passengers was heterozygous for both FVL and PGM. None of the passengers who wore class-I compression stockings developed DVT (95% CI 0-3.2%). INTERPRETATION We conclude that symptomless DVT might occur in up to 10% of long-haul airline travellers. Wearing of elastic compression stockings during long-haul air travel is associated with a reduction in symptomless DVT.

Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and other thrombotic microangiopathies

related to the subsections of this guideline. The writing group produced the draft guideline, which was subsequently revised by consensus by members of the Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force of the BCSH. The guideline was then reviewed by a sounding board of British haematologists, the BCSH and the British Society for Haematology Committee and comments incorporated where appropriate. The ‘GRADE’ system was used to quote levels and grades of evidence, details of which can be found at http://www.bcshguidelines.com. The objective of this guideline is to provide healthcare professionals with clear, up-to-date, and practical guidance on the management of TTP and related thrombotic microangiopathies, defined by thrombocytopenia, microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia (MAHA) and small vessel thrombosis.

Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of the thrombotic microangiopathic haemolytic anaemias.

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) was first described by Moschowitz (1924). The classic pentad of diagnostic features has been recognized for many years. However, several other syndromes are also characterized by similar features. These include haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), eclampsia and the HELLP syndrome (haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets). The concept has arisen that they might represent an overlapping spectrum of disease, although with varying pathophysiological features (see Table I). The recent characterization of a novel von Willebrand factor (VWF)-cleaving metalloprotease activity (Furlan et al, 1996; Tsai, 1996) and its deficiency or inhibition in some forms of microangiopathic haemolysis (Furlan et al, 1997, 1998; Tsai & Lian, 1998) has led to speculation that a pathogenic mechanism for individual patients can be defined more readily and appropriate treatment introduced more rapidly. However, there is still considerable confusion, a lack of properly conducted randomized clinical trials and poor co-ordination of clinical data. This is, in part, because these patients present to a range of specialists including haematologists, obstetricians, nephrologists and infectious disease physicians. These guidelines attempt to define the various clinical subtypes, specify the recognized diagnostic features and look critically at management options. It is acknowledged that there is a lack of evidence from well-conducted studies on which to support some of the recommendations made.

Evidence-based recommendations for the prevention and long-term management of thrombosis in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients: Report of a Task Force at the 13th International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies:

The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is defined by the presence of thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity in combination with the persistent presence of circulating antiphospholipid antibodies: lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin antibodies and/or anti-β2-glycoprotein I antibodies in medium to high titers. The management of thrombosis in patients with APS is a subject of controversy. This set of recommendations is the result of an effort to produce guidelines for therapy within a group of specialist physicians in Cardiology, Neurology, Hematology, Rheumatology and Internal Medicine, with a clinical and research focus on APS.

Clinical guidelines for testing for heritable thrombophilia

Trevor Baglin, Elaine Gray, Mike Greaves, Beverley J. Hunt, David Keeling, Sam Machin, Ian Mackie, Mike Makris, Tim Nokes, David Perry, R. C. Tait, Isobel Walker and Henry Watson Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, NIBSC, South Mimms, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Guy’s and St Thomas’, London, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, University College Hospital, London, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow and Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, UK

Assessment of an immature platelet fraction (IPF) in peripheral thrombocytopenia

A new automated method to reliably quantify reticulated platelets, expressed as the immature platelet fraction (IPF), has been developed utilizing the XE‐2100 blood cell counter with upgraded software (Sysmex, Kobe, Japan). The IPF is identified by flow cytometry techniques and the use of a nucleic acid specific dye in the reticulocyte/optical platelet channel. The clinical utility of this parameter was established in the laboratory diagnosis of thrombocytopenia due to increased peripheral platelet destruction, particularly autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura (AITP) and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP). Reproducibility and stability results over 48 h were good. An IPF reference range in healthy individuals was established as 1·1–6·1%, with a mean of 3·4%. Patients in whom platelet destruction might be abnormal, were studied and two of these patients followed serially during the course of treatment. The IPF was raised in several disease states. The most significant increases in IPF values were found in patients with AITP (mean 22·3%, range 9·2–33·1%) and acute TTP (mean 17·2%, range 11·2–30·9%). Following patients during treatment demonstrated that as the platelet count recovered the IPF% fell. These results show that a rapid, inexpensive automated method for measuring the IPF% is feasible and should become a standard parameter in evaluating the thrombocytopenic patient.

Remission in acute refractory and relapsing thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura following rituximab is associated with a reduction in IgG antibodies to ADAMTS-13

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) is a life‐threatening disorder and plasma exchange (PEX) remains the primary treatment modality. Twenty‐five patients with acute refractory/relapsing idiopathic TTP received rituximab in conjunction with PEX because of progressive clinical disease or deterioration in laboratory parameters, despite intensive standard therapy. In relapsing TTP, rituximab was started if antibody to ADAMTS‐13 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motif‐13) was demonstrated during previous episodes. All 25 patients attained complete clinical and laboratory remission in a median of 11 d after initiating rituximab. In 21 cases, ADAMTS‐13 activity was within the normal range following rituximab. Inhibitors were detected in 24/25 patients by mixing studies and/or immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies to ADAMTS‐13 pre‐rituximab. There was no evidence of inhibitors and/or IgG activity <10% in 23/25 patients following rituximab. In acute refractory cases, the median number of PEX pre‐rituximab and following the first rituximab infusion was 13 and 9, respectively. There have been no infectious complications, despite low CD 19 levels and no relapses. In patients with acute refractory/relapsing idiopathic TTP, rituximab appears to be a safe, effective, targeted therapy with a significant reduction in the requirement for PEX.

Increased circulating platelet–leucocyte complexes and platelet activation in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis

It is possible that platelet activation may play a pathogenic role in the increased risk of thrombosis associated with antiphospholipid antibodies (APA). In this study, levels of in vivo platelet activation were measured in 20 patients with primary antiphospholipid syndrome (PAPS) and 30 systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients (14 of whom had secondary APS) using sensitive flow cytometry. Soluble P‐selectin levels were also assayed. Platelet CD63 expression was significantly higher in PAPS than normal controls (P = 0·007), as well as SLE patients with and without secondary APS (P = 0·03 and P = 0·002 respectively). PAC‐1 binding was significantly higher in PAPS than the control group (P = 0·007) and SLE patients without APS (P = 0·015). Platelet–leucocyte complexes were significantly higher in SLE patients than both PAPS and the control group, and platelet–monocyte complexes were significantly increased in PAPS compared with the control group. (Platelet–leucocyte complexes were also significantly higher than controls in 10 rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients without APA). Soluble P‐selectin levels were significantly higher in PAPS and SLE patients than the control group. Platelet CD62p expression, annexin V binding and platelet microparticle numbers were not increased in PAPS or SLE patients. We conclude that there is evidence of increased platelet activation in PAPS and SLE, and this is important to note as it may have potential therapeutic implications with respect to use of antiplatelet agents in these patients.

Guidelines for the laboratory investigation of heritable disorders of platelet function

The guideline writing group was selected to be representative of UK‐based medical experts. MEDLINE was systematically searched for publications in English up to the Summer of 2010 using key words platelet, platelet function testing and platelet aggregometry. Relevant references generated from initial papers and published guidelines/reviews were also examined. Meeting abstracts were not included. The writing group produced the draft guideline, which was subsequently revised and agreed by consensus. Further comment was made by members of the Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force of the British Committee for Standards in Haematology. The guideline was then reviewed by a sounding board of approximately 40 UK haematologists, the British Committee for Standards in Haematology (BCSH) and the British Society for Haematology Committee and comments incorporated where appropriate. Criteria used to quote levels and grades of evidence are as outlined in appendix 7 of the Procedure for Guidelines Commissioned by the BCSH [http://www.bcshguidelines.com/BCSH_PROCESS/EVIDENCE_LEVELS_AND_GRADES_OF_RECOMMENDATION/43_GRADE.html]. The objective of this guideline is to provide healthcare professionals with clear guidance on platelet function testing in patients with suspected bleeding disorders. The guidance may not be appropriate to patients receiving antiplatelet therapy and in all cases individual patient circumstances may dictate an alternative approach.

Guidelines on fibrinogen assays

Haematology departments in the UK have traditionally performed fibrinogen assays to detect decreased levels and abnormalities of fibrinogen, and to assess haemorrhagic risk. It has also been shown that elevated fibrinogen levels are a predictor of a variety of arterial cardiovascular events, and fibrinogen assays are sometimes recommended with this in mind. The Clauss fibrinogen assay (based on the thrombin clotting time) is the most popular technique in UK hospital laboratories, although many other methods are also in use. There appears to be great variability in both the source of reagents and the exact method used for the Clauss assay. Most laboratories are now equipped with automated coagulation analysers, and many of these perform a fibrinogen estimation derived from the degree of change of light scatter or optical density during the prothrombin time (PT-Fg). A number of problems have been described in the use of the PT-Fg method: it generally gives higher values than the Clauss technique, but the exact degree of discrepancy seems to depend on a number of different variables. International and National standards are available for fibrinogen, but do not appear to be universally used. These guidelines have been prepared against this background and recommend which methods should be used in various clinical settings, as well as highlighting a variety of problems with fibrinogen assays.