Samuel Nii Ardey Codjoe

Perception, experience, and indigenous knowledge of climate change and variability: the case of Accra, a sub-Saharan African city

Several recent international assessments have concluded that climate change has the potential to reverse the modest economic gains achieved in many developing countries over the past decade. The phenomenon of climate change threatens to worsen poverty or burden populations with additional hardships, especially in poor societies with weak infrastructure and economic well-being. The importance of the perceptions, experiences, and knowledge of indigenous peoples has gained prominence in discussions of climate change and adaptation in developing countries and among international development organizations. Efforts to evaluate the role of indigenous knowledge in adaptation planning, however, have largely focused on rural people and their agricultural livelihoods. This paper presents the results of a study that examines perceptions, experiences, and indigenous knowledge relating to climate change and variability in three communities of metropolitan Accra, which is the capital of Ghana. The study design is based on a three-part conceptual framework and interview process involving risk mapping, mental models, and individual stressor cognition. Most of the residents interviewed in the three communities of urban Accra attributed climate change to the combination of deforestation and the burning of firewood and rubbish. None of the residents associated climate change with fossil fuel emissions from developed countries. Numerous potential adaptation strategies were suggested by the residents, many of which have been used effectively during past drought and flood events. Results suggest that ethnic residential clustering as well as strong community bonds in metropolitan Accra have allowed various groups and long-settled communities to engage in the sharing and transmission of knowledge of weather patterns and trends. Understanding and building upon indigenous knowledge may enhance the design, acceptance, and implementation of climate change adaptation strategies in Accra and urban regions of other developing nations.

Gender and occupational perspectives on adaptation to climate extremes in the Afram Plains of Ghana

Although sub-Saharan Africa does not contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, significant adverse impacts of climate change are anticipated in this region. Countries in West Africa, which are heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture, are projected to experience more frequent and intense droughts, altered rainfall patterns and increases in temperature through the end of this century. Changes in hydrology and temperature are likely to affect crop yields, thereby placing pressure on scarce resources in a region that is characterised by limited social, political, technical and financial resources. The success with which communities cope with the impacts of climate change is influenced by existing conditions, forces and characteristics which are peculiar to each of these communities. This paper assesses the preferred adaptation strategies during floods and droughts of males and females in three different occupations (farming, fishing, and charcoal production). Findings are based upon an analysis of focus group discussions and a ranking of preferred adaptation options in three communities in the Afram Plains of Ghana. Assessments of this nature should aid in the selection and implementation of adaptation options for communities and households, which is the level at which climate change adaptation is likely to occur in West Africa.

Migrant versus indigenous farmers. An analysis of factors affecting agricultural land use in the transitional agro-ecological zone of Ghana, 1984–2000

Abstract Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography 106(1): 103–113, 2006 The transitional agro-ecological zone of Ghana (10,630 km2) is the leading producer of grains, cereals and tubers. Located between the resource-endowed south and the impoverished north, it has attracted seasonal and permanent farm migrants mainly from northern Ghana, who now live side by side with the indigenous people. This paper examines the differences that exist between these groups with regard to factors affecting agricultural land use between 1984 and 2000. It utilizes information from a household survey undertaken in February 2002 among 786 farmers in 240 households in 12 communities. Results show that migrants had almost three times more cropped area, earned more from the sale of farm products, were more affluent, used more mechanized farming practices, and had extended into more agricultural lands compared to indigenous people. Furthermore, affluence predicted agricultural land use for both migrants and indigenous farmers in 1984, and household size and fallow period predicted agricultural land use for migrant and indigenous farmers respectively. In 2000, household size, land tenure arrangement, distance to farthest farm and household educational level predicted agricultural land use among migrants, while affluence, on-farm income, household size and tractor use predicted agricultural land use among indigenous farmers.

Perceived stressors of climate vulnerability across scales in the Savannah zone of Ghana: a participatory approach

Abstract Smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are confronted with climatic and non-climatic stressors. Research attention has focused on climatic stressors, such as rainfall variability, with few empirical studies exploring non-climatic stressors and how these interact with climatic stressors at multiple scales to affect food security and livelihoods. This focus on climatic factors restricts understanding of the combinations of stressors that exacerbate the vulnerability of farming households and hampers the development of holistic climate change adaptation policies. This study addresses this particular research gap by adopting a multi-scale approach to understand how climatic and non-climatic stressors vary, and interact, across three spatial scales (household, community and district levels) to influence livelihood vulnerability of smallholder farming households in the Savannah zone of northern Ghana. This study across three case study villages utilises a series of participatory tools including semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. The incidence, importance, severity and overall risk indices for stressors are calculated at the household, community, and district levels. Results show that climatic and non-climatic stressors were perceived differently; yet, there were a number of common stressors including lack of money, high cost of farm inputs, erratic rainfall, cattle destruction of crops, limited access to markets and lack of agricultural equipment that crossed all scales. Results indicate that the gender of respondents influenced the perception and severity assessment of stressors on rural livelihoods at the community level. Findings suggest a mismatch between local and district level priorities that have implications for policy and development of agricultural and related livelihoods in rural communities. Ghana’s climate change adaptation policies need to take a more holistic approach that integrates both climatic and non-climatic factors to ensure policy coherence between national climate adaptation plans and District development plans.

Geophysical, socio-demographic characteristics and perception of flood vulnerability in Accra, Ghana

Abstract Empirical studies of residential flood vulnerability have generally concentrated on either the geophysical characteristics or the socio-economic characteristics of a given region, rather than a combination of the two. In addition, studies using subjective assessments of flood vulnerability are not very common. However, due to the fact that people’s perceptions influence their risk behaviour, and therefore their vulnerability, understanding perceptions about a phenomenon is very significant for the design of effective communication as well as mitigation, coping, and adaptation strategies. This study uses a digital map (to calculate mean elevation, slope, proximity to lagoon, sea, and drain length by area) and the EDULINK Round II Household Survey (for socio-demographic characteristics of households) for the analysis. Perception of flood vulnerability is derived from responses from heads of households to the question, “Do you perceive your household to be vulnerable to floods?” The responses are either in the affirmative or negative. Results show that even when a subjective assessment of vulnerability is undertaken, it is geophysical characteristics that have significant associations with perceptions of flood vulnerability.

Climate change and cerebrospinal meningitis in the Ghanaian meningitis belt.

Cerebrospinal meningitis (CSM) is one of the infectious diseases likely to be affected by climate change. Although there are a few studies on the climate change-CSM nexus, none has considered perceptions of community members. However, understanding public perception in relation to a phenomenon is very significant for the design of effective communication and mitigation strategies as well as coping and adaptation strategies. This paper uses focus group discussions (FGDs) to fill this knowledge lacuna. Results show that although a few elderly participants ascribed fatal causes (disobedience to gods, ancestors, and evil spirits) to CSM infections during FGDs, majority of participants rightly linked CSM infections to dry, very hot and dusty conditions experienced during the dry season. Finally, community members use a suite of adaptation options to curb future CSM epidemics.

Population growth and agricultural land use in two agro‐ecological zones of Ghana, 1960–2010

Multiplicative and mediating variables are combined with a demographic variable, in non‐linear multiple regression models to assess the effect of population growth on agricultural land use in two agro‐ecological zones of Ghana. The paper uses data from a retrospective household survey (conducted among 1568 farmers in 504 households in 24 communities), population census reports of Ghana, for 1960, 1970, 1984 and 2000, agricultural census data for 1992 and 2000 and a land suitability map. Predictions of cropped area required to meet anticipated population growth are computed for 2010, based on multiple regression models and projected populations. Required cropped area is matched with actual arable area that would be available, based on a land suitability analysis. Predictions show that three and two districts in the dry and derived savannah zones, would, respectively, experience agricultural land shortfall. The rest of the districts in the two agro‐ecological zones would have agricultural land available to support future population growth.

Population and food crop production in male- and female-headed households in Ghana

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine the population-food crop production nexus, and within it assesses the differences between male- and female-headed households. Design/methodology/approach - The paper uses the demographic pressure, market price incentives theories and other mediating conditions, namely: environmental, techno-managerial, political economic and institutional. In addition, information from a household survey undertaken in 2002 among 196 and 56 male- and female-headed households, respectively, in 12 randomly selected localities. A multiple regression model is used to examine the role of population and other determinants in food crop production. Findings - Population predicts food crop production in male-headed households. In addition, contrary to some research findings that agricultural output remains low as a result of access to land, labour, farm equipment and information in female-headed households, this paper shows otherwise. Research limitations/implications - Female-headed households in the transitional agro-ecological zone produced more maize, owned more land, earned more from sale of maize, allowed for more years of land to fallow, used more inorganic fertiliser on their farms, cropped more agricultural land and cropped maize on soils with better water absorption capacity, compared to male-headed households. Future research is needed in the savannah and forest zones of Ghana, to ascertain whether these scenarios also pertain to those agro-ecological zones. Practical implications - Female subsistence farmers should be supported, since that could go a long way in helping Ghana achieve its goal of attaining a middle-income status in the shortest possible time. Originality/value - The paper contributes to the debate on the increasing role of women in agriculture.

Urban Household Characteristics and Dietary Diversity: An Analysis of Food Security in Accra, Ghana

Background: The world’s population is increasingly becoming urbanized. If the current urban growth rate is to continue, new and unprecedented challenges for food security will be inevitable. Dietary diversity has been used to ascertain food security status albeit at the multicountry and country levels. Thus, household-level studies in urban settings, particularly in sub-Sahara African, are few. Yet, it is imperative that assessments of food security are undertaken particularly in urban settings, due to the projected fast rate of urbanization and the challenges of attaining food security. Objective: To examine household characteristics and dietary diversity. Methods: The study uses data from 452 households from the second round of the Regional Institute for Population Studies (RIPS) EDULINK urban poverty and health study. Bivariate and multivariate analyses are undertaken. Results: Mean dietary diversity for all households is 6.8. Vegetables have the highest diversity, followed by cereal-based and grain products. Household characteristics that have statistically significant associations with dietary diversity include sex and level of education of household head, household wealth quintile, and source of food. Conclusions: There is high dietary diversity in the study communities of Accra but low consumption of foods rich in micronutrient, such as fruits and milk/dairy products. The study brings to fore issues related to resource-disadvantaged entities of the urban system, namely, females, poor households, and the non-educated who have food insecurity problems.

How do Ghana’s landfills affect residential property values? A case study of two sites in Accra

Like many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana lacks well-engineered sanitary landfill sites. Increased urbanization and concomitant real estate growth lead landfills to compete with residential land use, resulting in closer proximity between landfill sites and residential neighborhoods. The effects of landfills on the property values of nearby residential communities have been the subject of much debate in the developed world, where state-of-the-art and environmentally well-engineered landfills are common. However, academic and other research is inconclusive on the effects of landfills on property values in the developed countries. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by exploring the effects of landfills on residential property values in Ghana, using the Oblogo and Mallam landfills in Accra as a case study. Our analysis indicates that while landfills do depress nearby residential property values, the effects are contingent on property location relative to the level of urbanization in a community, and year of completion and total costs of property development.