Sander Jacobs

Mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services: An analytical framework for ecosystem assessments under action 5 of the EU biodiversity strategy to 2020

In the EU, many ecosystems and their services have been degraded 1,2 . Target 2 focuses on maintaining and enhancing ecosystem services and restoring degraded ecosystems by incorporating green infrastructure in spatial planning. This will contribute to the EUs sustainable growth objectives and to mitigating and adapting to climate change, while promoting economic, territorial and social cohesion and safeguarding the EUs cultural heritage. It will also ensure better functional connectivity between ecosystems within and between Natura 2000 areas and in the wider countryside. Target 2 incorporates the global Aichi target 15 agreed by EU Member States and the EU in Nagoya to restore 15% of degraded ecosystems by 2020. It is also a direct response to Aichi targets 2 and 14 of the Global Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, 2011-2020 of Convention of Biological Diversity 3 .

Role of plants in metal cycling in a tidal wetland: Implications for phytoremidiation

Accumulation of 8 metals and the semimetal As in 29 plant species was quantified in a restored tidal wetland on a contaminated site. Transfer coefficients between sediment and aboveground plant tissues were lower than in many other systems; from 0.013 (Pb) to 0.189 (Mn). A minor fraction of the sediment metal pool cycled through the aboveground vegetation (≤0.02%). However, during the four years of this study, species composition changed, and plant biomass as well as the metal pool in the vegetation increased (≤0.12%). Succession to either a willow dominated brushwood or a monospecific reed stand can further enlarge this pool (2.5%). Since the amount of trace metals in the wetland soil or in suspended solids deposited during tidal flooding is some orders of magnitude larger than the vegetation pool, phytoextraction is not applicable. The growth of plant species with low accumulation in aboveground tissues, e.g. Scirpus maritimus or Typha latifolia, may be preferred since this might result in lower toxic metal distribution to the wider environment.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

The link between biodiversity and ecosystem services is obvious. However, due to the complexity of both terms, discussions are often narrowed to specific components, provoking many useless debates. Because ecosystem service assessments are intended to provide guidance for ecosystem management, the confusion over how to treat biodiversity is potentially a serious problem. A clarification of the biodiversity concept in relation to ecosystem services is needed. This chapter sketches the history of both terms and gives an overview of the established functional linkages between them. Conclusively, when a broad multitude of values is taken into account, ecosystem services are an opportunity rather than a threat to biodiversity conservation. The evidence base for protection of our natural capital is weak, and being explicit about societal values of biodiversity is essential. Debates should focus on the consequences of biodiversity decline for service delivery and on incorporating physical limits in natural resource management.

Inclusive Ecosystem Services Valuation

Abstract This chapter discusses the concept of ecosystem services valuation. It argues that beyond monetary valuation, ES valuation should also take into account ecological and social values. Valuation should be geared toward strong sustainability in order to improve the well-being of every individual and society, now and in the future. Following a systemic approach, bundles of ES should be valued together. When systems are far from critical thresholds, valuing changes through various alternatives is appropriate. Deliberative multicriteria decision tools could be appropriate to collectively value ES. However, when systems are close to thresholds or tipping points, ecosystem service valuation will need to switch from choosing among resources or alternatives to valuing the avoidance of catastrophic ecosystem change. Finally, it is important to remember that valuation is merely a tool and not a solution in itself. When one is valuing for sustainability, the questions of politics, governance, and institutions cannot be ignored.

CICES going Local : Ecosystem Services Classification Adapted for a Highly Populated Country

Abstract Multiple classification systems for ecosystem services (ES) make comparison and integration between studies and assessments very difficult. With the fast-growing number of ecosystem services assessment and valuation studies, there is a need to identify generally agreed definitions and to design a common base that will enable comparisons between ecosystem services assessments at different places. The recently developed Common International Classification for Ecosystem Services (CICES) is aiming to fill this gap. One advantage of the CICES approach is that it allows adjustment to local conditions. Through an iterative consultation round with Belgian experts from administrations, policy support units, and research centers CICES has been adapted to the needs of a highly populated country, where multifunctional land use is very common. The goal of CICES-Be is to introduce a common reference base for ecosystem services in Belgium, which is locally adapted and compatible with an international standard.

Soybean Trade: Balancing Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts of an Intercontinental Market.

The trade in soybean, an important animal feed product, exemplifies the environmental and socio-economic impact of global markets and global agricultural policy. This paper analyses the impact of increasing production of soybean in the exporting countries (deforestation and grassland conversion) as well as in importing regions (decrease in permanent grassland by substitution of grass as feed). Ecosystem services monetary values were used to calculate the environmental and socio-economic impact of observed land use changes. This is balanced against the economic value of the global soybean trade. The results prove that consumption choices in one region have real effects on the supply of ecosystem services at a large spatial scale. Conclusively, solutions to make this global market more sustainable are discussed.

Ecosystem Service Assessments: Science or Pragmatism?

Abstract This chapter challenges the capability of the ecosystem service to obtain sustainable development beyond awareness raising, based on the urgency to deliver sound results for implementation versus the large uncertainties inherent in the different research fields involved and their integration. The authors identify ten main sources of uncertainty that may affect policy and management decisions, and propose three independent strategies for individual researchers, commissioners and stakeholders to account for methodological risks and best practices in methodologies, dissemination, or application of results, even under restricted budgets or project goals. The chapter argues for a clear and transparent ecosystem services research policy on methodology development, uncertainty acknowledgment, and communication.This chapter challenges the capability of the ecosystem service to obtain sustainable development beyond awareness raising, based on the urgency to deliver sound results for implementation versus the large uncertainties inherent in the different research fields involved and their integration. The authors identify ten main sources of uncertainty that may affect policy and management decisions, and propose three independent strategies for individual researchers, commissioners and stakeholders to account for methodological risks and best practices in methodologies, dissemination, or application of results, even under restricted budgets or project goals. The chapter argues for a clear and transparent ecosystem services research policy on methodology development, uncertainty acknowledgment, and communication.

Mapping wetland loss and restoration potential in Flanders (Belgium): an ecosystem service perspective

With the case of Flanders (northern part of Belgium) we present an integrated approach to calculate accurate losses of wetlands, potentials for restoration, and their ecosystem services supplies and illustrate how these insights can be used to evaluate and support policy making. Flanders lost about 75% of its wetland habitats in the past 50–60 years, with currently only 68,000 ha remaining, often in a more or less degraded state. For five different wetland categories (excluding open waters) we calculated that restoration of lost wetland is still possible for an additional total area of about 147,000 ha, assuming that, with time and appropriate measures and techniques, the necessary biophysical and ecological conditions can more or less be restored or created. Wetland restoration opportunities were mapped according to an open and forested landscape scenario. Despite the fact that for 49,000 ha wetland restoration is justifiable by the actual presence of an appropriate spatial planning and/or protection status, the official Flemish nature policy only foresees 7,400 to 10,600 ha of additional wetland (open waters excluded) by 2050. The benefits of a more ambitious wetland restoration action program are underpinned by an explorative and quantified analysis of ecosystem service supply for each of the two scenarios, showing that the strongly increased supply of several important regulating and cultural ecosystem services might outweigh the decrease of food production, especially if extensive farming on temporary wet soils remains possible. Finally, we discuss the challenges of wetland restoration policies for biodiversity conservation and climate change.

Tracing Si–N–P ecosystem-pathways: is relative uptake in riparian vegetation influenced by soil waterlogging, mowing management and species diversity?

Despite the growing concern about the importance of silicon (Si) in controlling ecological processes in aquatic ecosystems, little is known about its processing in riparian vegetation, especially compared to nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). We present experimental evidence that relative plant uptake of N and P compared to Si in riparian vegetation is dependent on mowing practices, water-logging and species composition. Results are obtained from a controlled and replicated mesocosm experiment, with a full-factorial design of soil water logging and mowing management. In our experiments, the Si excluding species Plantago lanceolata was dominant in the mown and non-waterlogged treatments, while Si accumulating meadow grasses and Phalaris arundinacea dominated the waterlogged treatments. Although species composition, management and soil moisture interacted strongly in their effect on relative Si:N and Si:P uptake ratios, the uptake of N to P remained virtually unchanged over the different treatments. Our study sheds new light on the impact of riparian wetland ecosystems on nutrient transport to rivers. It indicates that it is essential to include Si in future studies of the impact of riparian vegetation on nutrient transport, as these are often implemented as a measure to moderate excessive N and P inputs.

Chapter 20 – EBI—An Index for Delivery of Ecosystem Service Bundles∗

The Ecosystem service Bundle Index (EBI) was developed in response to the urgent need for tools that allow rapid and transparent, yet scientific underpinned assessment of ecosystem services. The index is based on a Bayesian network environment in which data on the biophysical conditions and land use properties that drive service delivery are combined to determine the level of service provision. The index points out service optimization opportunities as discrepancies between actual land use and the ecosystem’s biophysical potential. The model can be used for scenario building and offers opportunities to spatially distribute services in a most beneficial way. The EBI was developed as a prototype and tested in a pilot study area using three interacting ecosystem services: carbon sequestration, agricultural production and wood production.