Sandhya Babel

Low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: a review

In this article, the technical feasibility of various low-cost adsorbents for heavy metal removal from contaminated water has been reviewed. Instead of using commercial activated carbon, researchers have worked on inexpensive materials, such as chitosan, zeolites, and other adsorbents, which have high adsorption capacity and are locally available. The results of their removal performance are compared to that of activated carbon and are presented in this study. It is evident from our literature survey of about 100 papers that low-cost adsorbents have demonstrated outstanding removal capabilities for certain metal ions as compared to activated carbon. Adsorbents that stand out for high adsorption capacities are chitosan (815, 273, 250 mg/g of Hg(2+), Cr(6+), and Cd(2+), respectively), zeolites (175 and 137 mg/g of Pb(2+) and Cd(2+), respectively), waste slurry (1030, 560, 540 mg/g of Pb(2+), Hg(2+), and Cr(6+), respectively), and lignin (1865 mg/g of Pb(2+)). These adsorbents are suitable for inorganic effluent treatment containing the metal ions mentioned previously. It is important to note that the adsorption capacities of the adsorbents presented in this paper vary, depending on the characteristics of the individual adsorbent, the extent of chemical modifications, and the concentration of adsorbate.

Factors affecting seasonal variation of membrane filtration resistance caused by Chlorella algae

A seasonal fluctuation pattern was observed in membrane filtration resistance by Chlorella algae cultured in open ponds in the tropical environment. In order to investigate the causes of this phenomenon, Chlorella was cultivated under controlled conditions and the cake resistance was measured by batch filtration in dead-end mode. The filtration resistance was found to be a function of environmental conditions. Algae could grow favourably and offered low specific cake resistance (R,s) on the order of 10(11) m/g for the culture temperature from 28 degrees C to 35 degrees C. The algal growth was inhibited and the specific cake resistance increased to the order of 10(12) m/g below or above this optimum temperature range. Strong solar radiation, coupled with high temperatures, also inhibited the growth of algae and resulted in higher specific cake resistance. The specific cake resistance of algae cultured at different temperatures increased with the amount of the extracellular organic matter (EOM) extracted by 0.1 N NaOH. Hence EOM, rather than bacteria present in the mono-algal culture, was considered to be the primary factor affecting the cake resistance. The specific cake resistance increased drastically after actively growing cells were stored in nutrient-free water under dark conditions. However, the resistance was slightly decreased when the algal cells were stored in NSIII nutrient media in a dark room, indicating the effect of nutrient availability on the change of the specific cake resistance under the light-limiting conditions. EOM extracted from the cells kept in the nutrient-free water contained less sugar than the fresh culture, whereas the EOM extracted from the cells stored in the NSIII media contained more sugar. The molecular distribution of the EOM shifted from below 1,000 kDa before storage to more than 2,000 kDa after storage in both the nutrient-free and NSIII media.

Removal of Cr from synthetic wastewater by sorption into volcanic ash soil

The possibility of using volcanic ash soils (VAS) or Andisols as a low-cost and natural adsorbent is investigated in this study for the removal of Cr (VI) from synthetic wastewater. Andisols can be used as adsorbent because they are characterized by the presence of non-crystalline secondary minerals such as allophane and imogolite that show variable charge characteristics and have the ability to retain cations and anions. The adsorption of Cr on to two VAS from Mt. Isarog and Mandalagan (B-Horizon), Philippines, was carried out at ambient temperature using batch adsorption studies. The effects of different parameters such as amount of adsorbent, contact time, initial Cr concentration and pH of the solution were investigated. The results showed that the VAS from Isarog is more effective in the removal of Cr than in Mandalagan. The maximum removal efficiency of the Isarog soil for a Cr concentration of 10mg/L reached 89% with a dose of 20 g/L at a moderately acidic pH of 3. The Mandalagan soil on the other hand could remove only 65% at the same pH conditions and parameters. The difference in the removal of the two soils may be attributed to their physico-chemical properties in which the Isarog soil has higher clay content, porosity and lower bulk density. Isarog soil has fine particles with higher surface area and more active non-crystalline minerals and thus has higher removal efficiency than Mandalagan soil. Based on the results, the use of VAS from Isarog appears to be economical and an alternative to commercially available adsorbents for the removal of Cr from contaminated wastewater.

ANAEROBIC CO-DIGESTION OF SEWAGE AND BREWERY SLUDGE FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION AND LAND APPLICATION

In Thailand, sewage sludge production from the Bangkok metropolitan area can reach up to 63,000 ton/y by 2010. The Beer-Thai Company, Thailand, produces beer and generates lots of sludge as waste. Sewage sludge and brewery sludge can be used to generate energy which could be saved on the fossil fuels conventionally used as a source of energy. The possibility was explored to mix brewery sludge with sewage sludge at different mixing ratios for anaerobic digestion so that the energy can be generated as biogas and at the same time, digested sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer for agricultural applications. A batch anaerobic reactor under mesophilic condition for a digestion period of 40 days was used in the laboratory. The acrylic reactor was cylindrical with a working weight of 12 kg. The diameter was 23.7 cm and the height was 34.5 cm. Sludge mixtures at different ratios were fed into the reactors and the optimum mixing ratio was determined. Experimental results showed that the sludge mixture at ratio of 25:75 % by weight (sewage:brewery) yielded higher biogas production. A reduction in heavy metals and pathogens was observed at this ratio after the digestion indicating its safe use as fertilizer. Nitrogen content was about 4.95 % which is well above the commercial fertilizers. At optimum mixing ratio of 25:75, the amount of the generated biogas is 1.15×106 m3/y. This large amount of biogas is equivalent to 1.44 million kWh/y of electricity, 561,000 L/y of diesel oil and 936,000 L/y of vehicle gasoline.

Survival of Salmonella spp. in a simulated acid-phase anaerobic digester treating sewage sludge

The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in municipal waste sludge may create a serious outbreak of water borne diseases if the sludge is used for agricultural purpose. An attempt to decrease the number of pathogenic microorganisms, Salmonella spp. using a simulated acid-phase anaerobic digester was tested in a laboratory-scale batch experiment. Reduction of Salmonella spp. was demonstrated in a mixture of sludge and organic acid, simulating an acid digester of a two-phase anaerobic digestion process. A high concentration of organic acid at a pH value of 5.5-6.0 prevents a decrease in Salmonella spp. concentration. Almost complete destruction of Salmonella spp. is observed within two days if the pH value is maintained below 5.5.

Potential for land application of contaminated sewage sludge treated with fermented liquid from pineapple wastes

The suitability for land application of anaerobically digested sewage sludge treated with naturally fermented and Aspergillus niger (A. niger) fermented raw liquid from pineapple wastes, in terms of changes in the forms and amount of heavy metals and nutrient and pathogen content, were investigated in this study. Leaching studies for fermented liquid at optimum conditions (pH and contact time with best metal removal efficiencies) were carried out for the removal of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn from sewage sludge, with citric acid as a reference. Using the same sludge before and after leaching, sequential fractionation studies were done to observe the effect of treatment on the forms of metals in sludge and their mobility and bioavailability. Results of laboratory scale studies revealed that leaching with all extractants at selected optimum conditions resulted in a decrease in heavy metals and pathogen content of the treated sludge, presence of sufficient amount of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) and dominance of residual fractions in most metals, with sludge treated with A. niger, having the best quality. The results, therefore, indicate the high potential of the treated sludge for land application, with no harm from heavy metals released and no toxicity to the soil and groundwater.

Treatment of Landfill Leachate by Crossflow Microfiltration and Ozonation

Abstract Laboratory scale experiments were conducted for the treatment of landfill leachate using crossflow microfiltration (CFMF) with periodic backflush as a declogging technique. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) was used as for pretreatment, and ozonation was used as posttreatment for CFMF. Single channel tubular ceramic membranes of 0.2 and 1.2 μm pore size were used in this study. The results showed that permeate flux increases with an increased dose of PAC added to the leachate. When membranes of different pore sizes were compared, the 0.2-μm membrane performed better than the 1.2-μm membrane, giving a higher flux as well as higher removal of color and COD. The optimum PAC dose for CFMF was found to be 30 g/L whereas the optimum value for the batch test was found to be 60 g/L.

Effect of leachate loading rate and incubation period on the treatment efficiency by T. versicolor immobilized on foam cubes

This study focuses on treatment of landfill leachate in column experiments by immobilized Trametes versicolor on polyurethane foam, collected from Nonthaburi landfill site, Thailand. In this study, glucose was used as a co-substrate. The effect of biomass growth on color removal was observed by immobilizing fungi on polyurethane foam. The same immobilized fungi were used for four cycles of 5 days each to find the reuse of fungi. Leachate was diluted to see the effect of organic loading on color removal. At optimum pH of 4 and in 20 days with 3 g/L of glucose, the fungi could decolorize 78 % and 63 % for 5-times dilution and concentrated leachate, respectively, using immobilized fungi after 4 days initial growth. Fungi could also reduce biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand of 52 % and 42 % (with initial biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand of 48,900 and 96,512 mg/L), respectively, with glucose 3 g/L in concentrate leachate and with 4 days initial immobilization of fungi on polyurethane foam. About 1–6% higher color removal was observed on day 20 with 15 days fungi immobilization initially as compared to 4 days immobilization. Higher removal efficiency was observed for the same leachate after dilution due to reduction in organic loading. Addition of co-substrate enhances significantly removal of color, biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. Chemical oxygen demand removal reached to 0.6 mg/mg of biomass with the co-substrate. Therefore, white rot fungi can be considered as potentially useful microorganisms in landfill leachate treatment.

Sustainable utilization of waste palm oil and sulfonated carbon catalyst derived from coconut meal residue for biodiesel production

In this study, an inexpensive, environmental benign acid catalyst is prepared using coconut meal residue (CMR) and employed for biodiesel production from waste palm oil (WPO). The total acid density of the catalyst is found to be 3.8mmolg-1. The catalyst shows a unique amorphous structure with 1.33m2g-1 of surface area and 0.31cm3g-1 of mean pore volume. Successful activation is confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The highest biodiesel yield of 92.7% was obtained from WPO in an open reflux system using the catalyst. Results show that biodiesel yield increases with increasing methanol:oil (molar ratio) and reaction time up to an optimum value. It is found that the catalyst can be reused for at least four cycles for >80% biodiesel yield. Fuel properties of the produced biodiesel meet international biodiesel standards.

Effect of Drying Process on Heavy Metals Fractionation of Contaminated Sludge for Land Application

Metal fractionation studies on metals in sludge are usually done on dried sludge. Although there are advantages in this form of sludge, it is possible that fractionation of metals in sludge may be influenced by the drying process, which consequently affects mobility of metals at disposal. In this study, sequential chemical extraction was done to assess the effect of drying on fractionation of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) on wet and dewatered (air-dried and oven-dried) anaerobically digested sludge samples in Bangkok, Thailand. Results revealed an insignificant difference in the fractionation profile of metals for both wet and dewatered sludge. The higher percentage of residual fraction for Cu and oxidizable fraction for Zn in the wet sludge, however, makes this form more suitable for direct land application. In the case of oven-dried and air-dried sludge, the forms of some metals (e.g., Pb and Zn) seem to vary significantly as the sludge is oven-dried, with Pb decreasing its residual phase by 15%, and Zn increasing in oxidizable phase by 41%. The results seem to indicate that drying affects bioavailability of metals in sludge and air-drying seems to favor sludge for land application.