Sandra E. Moriarty

Newsmagazine Visuals and the 1988 Presidential Election.

The Republican presidential and vice presidential candidates edged out the Democratic candidates in photographic coverage in Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News & World Report in this study of 1988 campaign coverage. The study covered the fall campaign and measured 15 attributes of photographs (in addition to the sheer numbers), such as camera angle, whether or not the candidate was smiling or frowning, active or passive, and the manner of dress. The study found evidence that editors attempted to balance coverage between both parties. The Republican edge was not large.

A Study of Newsmagazine Photographs of the 1984 Presidential Campaign

fi During a presidential campaign the public is provided with a multitude of words and visual images from which to distill their perceptions of and preferences for the candidates. This content analysis examines the visual images of candidates specifically the photographs recording the events of the 1984 presidential campaign as reproduced in three national newsmagazines. Two reasons are offered for undertaking such a study: first, candidates vary in the kinds of visual images shown by the media, and second, these visual images can influence reactions to the candidate. The conceptual basis for the content analysis categories is derived from the person perception literature. Visual Images of Candidates. The visual images of candidates shown in the media are determined both by how the candidates present themselves and by how they are re-presented by the media. As Nimmo and Savage point out, a political candidate is “an actor playing a political role.”’ In playing that role, the candidate may deliberately attempt to control the visual cues s/he displays. Kaid and Davidson found differences in the visual cues exhibited by candidates in a comparison of incumbent and challenger television adveroften by incumbents than by challengers. And incumbents tended to engage in direct eye contact while challengers tended not to use direct eye contact. Because television advertising is under the control of the candidate, differences between candidate visual images can be attributed to candidates’ self-presentation. But with news coverage, the effects of candidate presentation and media representation become confounded. For example, the differences between candidate facial expressions shown on television news3 during the 1984 presidential campaign may be attributed to actual differences in candidate behavior or to the media’s editing. The ability of editing to subtly distort the roles portrayed by men and women was demonstrated in Blackwood’s study of nonpolitical news photos.4 Visual information may also be manipulated through composition. Different angles and focusing techniques can structure a scene to create radically different impressions.5

The Symbiotics of Semiotics and Visual Communication

Abstract This article reviews visual semiotics, aphilosophical approach that seeks to interpret messages in terms of their signs and patterns of symbolism. Semiotic analysis is particularly relevantfor messages that rely on visual communication cues. The theory is that Peircian semiotics, rather than Saussurian semiology, can provide a central organizing perspective for analyzing how the “standsfor” function in sign systems produces meaning in nonverbal communication situations.

A Conceptual Map of Visual Communication

AbstractThis paper explores the evolving and well-recognized body of visual communication theory and literature that crosses a variety of disciplines. Such multi-disciplinary work clusters in the areas of visual literacy, visual thinking, visual perception, imagery, and representation. The paper attempts to develop a more widely accepted model that better addresses the unique characteristics of visual communication as a field of study and in so doing, attempts to develop a map of the field that more clearly identifies the central theories and areas of study of visual communication in a way that moves awayfrom the limitations of the older verbal language metaphor. This map identifies the various areas and foundational theories on which a multidisciplinary program of visual communication research might be built.

Beyond the Hierarchy of Effects: A Conceptual Framework

Abstract This paper briefly summarizes the various hierarchy-of-effects models and discusses them in terms of their usefulness for the setting of advertising message objectives. It proposes replacing process-oriented approaches with a model based on the three domains of message effects: perception, education, and persuasion. These domains are presented in a model that depicts interrelationships as well as a continuum of effect for the various types of domains. The conceptual framework offered in this paper suggests that the three domains are equally important, interdependent, and operate simultaneously.

Yes, Creativity Can be Taught--And Here Are Some Devices for Teaching It.

Creat ive thinking is a universal skill that is highly prized in news-editorialjournalism, advertising and public ?elations. Feature writers search for story ideas; public relations experts search for ideas for special promotions; and an entire segment of the advertising industry is called “the creative side” where writers and artists search for the big selling idea. And yet there is a myth, both in the field and in the classroom, that creativity can’t be taught. In the introduction to Phil Burton’s copywriting textbook he says, “You can’t learn from a book the ability to come up with an inspirational idea.”’ Burton’s disclaimer applies to more than just learning from books. He believes that “some people have a heaven-sent ability to think creatively.” These lucky people have “the gift.” The rest of us are lost souls. Granted, some people have more aptitude, or talent, than others. However, as Alex Osborn said in his book, Imaginative ntinking, “Imagination is as universal as memory.”2 Talent may appear as a bell curve, but creativity-or getting ideas or

Visual Communication: A Taxonomy And Bibliography

The study of visual communication is a multi-disciplinary, multi-dimensional effort. People who write on this topic come from mass communication (including photography, advertising, and news editorial areas), film and cinema studies, education, art and aesthetics, anthropology, psychology, philosophy, linguistics, semiotics, architecture and even archaeology. This rich melange of viewpoints is an asset because of the insights that come from cross-fertilization, however it causes some problems academically for those of us who teach visual communication because of a lack of any sense of common theory. This is not to suggest that there is or should be a central of core theory that organizes the field, however, it would be easier to order a curriculum, as well as a graduate program of study, if there were some notion of at least the important theories and scholars from the various disciplines that need to be covered. This project looks at the body of literature and the categories that emerge from the writings to develop a taxonomy of topics and some sense of the location of the most important, or at least the most frequently written about, areas of study. The objective is to collect the scholarly writing on the most central visual communication topics (mental imagery, visual thinking, the language metaphor, psychology), as well as peripheral topics that interweave with visual communication, such as sociology, anthropology, archaeology and architecture. But first lets look at a review of some of the major pieces of work similar to this effort. In terms of books, Probably the most important book specifically focused on visual communication theory is So Worths series of essays which appeared in his landmark book, Studying Visual Communication.1 Another important work is a book of readings called Visual Literacy edited by Moore and Dwyer, which comes from the educational media discipline but includes a number of essays that relate to basic visual communication theory, as well.2

Cultural Palettes: An Exercise in Sensitivity for Designers.

Typically when student designers are given a visual problem to solve, they tend to approach it intuitively using their aesthetic judgment to evaluate the nature of the problem as well as the quality of their ideas. In a cross-cultural communication situation, the limitations of this subjective-and culturally bound-method become quickly apparent. The designers may find themselves proposing design solutions that reflect their own culture and exhibit little sensitivity to the nuances of symbols and colors used in other cultures. The concept of a cultural palette provides a model for researching visual communication in a cross-cultural context. A palette is the board on which an artist mixes colors, but more appropriately it is also the range of colors used in a particular painting. A cultural palette, then, is the range of symbols and colors, as well as layout and art styles that are culturally appropriate for a particular communication project. Such a palette presents a variety of image possibilities and can serve as a guide for visual design. The range of symbols permits the adaptation of the palette to the communication needs of the various audience groups, as well as the aesthetic needs of the designer. A cultural palette is specific in that it carries cultural meaning and nuances of meaning. Symbols and colors can be either positively or negatively loaded. Ideally a cultural palette would focus on those elements that are free from bias and avoid the offensive ones. The concept of a cultural palette, however, is also useful as a sensitivity exercise in visual communication or graphic design courses. The goal of such a class exercise is to develop cultural palettes for identifiable subcultures and marginalized groups-the elderly, gays, blacks, Asians, native Americans, teenagers, the disabled, working women-any subgroup with whom the dominant institutions in a society may want or need to develop a dialog. It can also be used as an exercise in international or global communication. One of the problems in cross-cultural communication is that designers of the message may find themselves operating with stereotypes and cliches. For example, in explaining the concept of cultural palettes, students in a visual communications seminar at Colorado University were asked first to brainstorm in class about appropriate and inappropriate symbols and colors to use when communicating to and with men. The class was pre-

Nostalgia and Consumer Sentiment.

Those who teach the creative aspects of advertising are constantly pressed to spot trends in fashion. Given a copy platform, which outlines the basic premise or selling proposition, there are hundreds of ways to express that premise creatively. Sometimes a particular style or approach may set the tone for a period such as the ultracontemporary “art deco” style used during the ’30s or the fantasy styles of the push pin studio and the “psychedelic” artists like Peter Max who created a graphic personality for the ‘60s.l Generally these “signature” styles comprise only a small percentage of the ads of that given period. They are noteworthy, however, because they establish a trend that lends a distinctive personality to that particular era. Recently observers have noted that advertising in the ’70s seemed to be using a number of themes that could best be described as “nostalgic.”2 Why might creative directors be using nostalgia as a strategy in advertising in the 1960’s and 1970’s?

Trends in Advertising Typography

One of the greatest challenges in teaching an esthetic subject like advertising design is analyzing current trends. Even for a knowledgeable and astute student of the art, these questions might best be answered with a crystal ball. You spot a trend, but it’s just a flash and then it fades, while a complete revolution in design can creep along relatively unnoticed because it’s a style whose era has naturally arrived, This study is a content analysis of design decisions in the area of advertising typography. It seeks to quantify such esthetic decisions as weight. width, tone, case, spacing, contrast, angularity, column edges, line length, leading and type size. Altogether it investigates 29 factors involvi ig specifications for both display type and body copy. Observers of the typographic scene have noted, researched, and, in some cases, recommended adoption of certain fashionable trends in typographic design. Rehe takes a strong position in favor of unjustified lines, for example. He also recommends using close-set type, particularly for display type.1 Flesch has observed a return to shorter lines and, along with Rehe. recommends the use of two-column formats rather then one wide column of type? Flesch advises using the half dozen most common classic typefaces and this view is echoed in an article by Ernst which discusses the potential legibility problems of