Sandra E. Short

Collective Efficacy and Team Performance: A Longitudinal Study of Collegiate Football Teams

University of North DakotaThis study examined the reciprocal relationship between collective efficacy and teamperformance over a season of competition in American football. Efficacy beliefs ofoffensive football players from 10 teams were assessed prior to 8 consecutive games toform 2 team-level measures of collective efficacy: aggregated self-efficacy and aggre-gated collective efficacy. Game-level performance indexes produced a team-levelmeasure of offensive performance for each game. Within teams and across games,aggregated collective efficacy prior to performance was a positive predictor of subse-quent offensive performance; however, previous offensive performance was a negativepredictor of subsequent aggregated collective efficacy. Within weeks and across teams,aggregated collective efficacy prior to performance also was a positive predictor ofsubsequent offensive performance, and previous offensive performance was a positive,rather than negative, predictor of subsequent aggregated collective efficacy.

Development and Preliminary Validation of the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sports

This study presents the development and preliminary validation of the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sports (CEQS). The study was conducted in 3 phases. In Phase 1, a 42-item questionnaire was developed and tested with 271 college-aged student-athletes. An exploratory factor analysis revealed 5 collective efficacy factors with 27 items retained. In Phase 2, again using college-aged student-athletes (N = 286), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a 5-factor, 20-item measure. These factors were named Ability, Effort, Preparation, Persistence, and Unity. In Phase 3, preliminary support for the construct validity (i.e., convergent, predictive, and discriminant validity) of the CEQS was obtained by examining correlations among the CEQS subscales and a measure of team cohesion (Group Environment Questionnaire; Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron, 1985). A second CFA was conducted on the CEQS to cross-validate the measure. Combined results establish preliminary support for the CEQS.

Imagery use in sport: Mediational effects for efficacy

The factors that influence whether an athlete chooses to engage in imagery are largely unknown. One reason may be the amount of confidence athletes have in their ability to image. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships among efficacy in using imagery, imagery use and imagery ability. Consistent with Banduras (1986, 1997) theory, it was hypothesized that there would be a positive correlation between efficacy in using imagery and imagery use, and that efficacy in using imagery would mediate the relationship between imagery ability and imagery use. Participants were 74 female athletes from various sports. The instruments we used were the Movement Imagery Questionnaire – Revised (Hall & Martin, 1997) for imagery ability, the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) for imagery use, and a modified version of the latter questionnaire for efficacy in using imagery. Correlations showed that the more athletes were confident in their ability to use a certain image, the more they used it. Efficacy in using imagery was found to mediate only the relationship between imagery ability and cognitive imagery use.

Essay: Role of the coach in the coach-athlete relationship

The relationship that exists between a coach and an athlete has been extensively researched, and can be both extreme and powerful (panel). A coach has tremendous influence on the physical and psychological development of their athletes. Sophia Jowett has defined a positive coach-athlete relationship as a state reached when coaches’ and athletes’ closeness (eg, interpersonal feelings of trust, respect, and appreciation), commitment (eg, interpersonal thoughts and intentions that aim to maintain the relationship over time), and complementarity (ie, interpersonal behaviours of cooperation, such as responsiveness, easiness, and friendliness) are mutually and causally interconnected. The main responsibility of the coach is to enable their athletes to attain levels of performance not otherwise achievable. Coaches therefore need to motivate athletes and establish the right conditions for learning. Effective coaches have many skills. They should, for instance, be good communicators and have a working knowledge of the learning processes, and of the teaching methods, training principles, and assessment procedures associated with their sport. These skills enable a coach to fulfil five defined roles—those of teacher, organiser, competitor, learner, and friend and mentor. Teacher—This role is the most immediately recognisable function of a coach. Quality training or practising provide opportunities for coaches to display their knowledge and skills to help prepare athletes for competition. Training involves the provision of tuition about physical, tactical, technical, and mental aspects of the sport. Although some coaches also teach their athletes psychological skills (such as mental imagery or relaxation techniques) to help them learn and perform new skills, and effective strategies to improve their selfconfidence and regulate arousal and anxiety levels, many hire psychologists to work with their teams on these aspects of mental training. Organiser—Typically the least enjoyable or rewarding part of being a coach involves the work that is done behind the scenes—the organisation of practices and competitions, and the scheduling, planning, and transportation of athletes—that makes for a successful season. Organisation, however, helps a coach to prepare for training and for competition, and is a crucial variable for success in all sports. A coach must have an explicit plan or vision, especially in team sports. It is vital for a coach to begin every season by outlining the steps necessary to achieve success. Related to the role of the coach as an organiser is the recognition that they often have to work within certain constraints. There are issues specific to places and contextual factors like scholarship allotment and budgets that can affect a coach’s win-loss

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Group Environment Questionnaire with Co-Acting Sports:

To assess whether the Group Environment Questionnaire is applicable to athletes in co-acting sports such as track and field, the factor structure of the Group Environment Questionnaire among a heterogeneous sample of 199 co-acting team sport athleres was investigated. A confirmatory factor analysis did not support the hypothesized four-factor model. A subsequent exploratory facror analysis yielded two independent factors chat had no interpretable pattern of the four Group Environment Questionnaire factors within them. While this finding requires replication and confirmation, rhe four-factor model of the Group Environment Questionnaire does nor appear ro be as valid for co-acting sports as for interacting sports.

Athletes' use of exercise imagery during weight training.

Imagery is a cognitive process during which people use their minds to create (or recreate) experiences that are similar to real-life situations. This study examined how college athletes used imagery during weight training. Subjects were 295 Division I (n = 163) and Division II (n = 132) college student athletes (men: n = 138, women: n = 157) who participated in a weight training program as a requirement of their sport. They completed a slightly modified version of the “Weight Lifting Imagery Questionnaire.” Results showed that appearance imagery (i.e., images related to the attainment of a fit-looking body) was used and considered the most effective followed by technique imagery (i.e., images related to performing the skill and techniques correctly with good form) and energy imagery (i.e., images related to getting “psyched up” or feeling energized). Other variables that effected imagery use were gender, age, time of season, and levels of motivation. In addition, gender, previous imagery training, and level of motivation had an effect on the perceptions of imagery effectiveness. Confidence in the ability to image was associated with both imagery use and effectiveness, and imagery use and effectiveness were associated with confidence in the weight room. The findings support previous research in exercise imagery that appearance imagery is most used followed by technique and energy imagery and extend them in such a way that strength coaches have practical advice on how to use imagery in a positive way with their athletes. Suggestions about how strength coaches can use imagery with their clients are provided.

The Frequency and Perceived Effectiveness of Images Used to Build, Maintain, and Regain Confidence

This exploratory study investigated the content of the images athletes use to build, maintain, and regain their confidence. It also investigated their perceptions of the effectiveness of images for these confidence sub-functions. Participants were 142 college student athletes (60% female) from the central north area of the United States or Canada. Participants completed a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Stevens, & Paivio, 2005). Data were analyzed using a repeated measures design at the subscale level, and using descriptive statistics at the item level. For imagery use, there was a significant main effect for imagery subscales, confidence sub-functions, and a significant interaction between the imagery subscales and confidence sub-functions (p < .05). For imagery effectiveness, there were significant main effects for both imagery subscales and confidence sub-functions. At the individual item level, analyses revealed that athletes used different images depending on whether they were building, maintaining, or regaining confidence, and that the images that were the most used were not always perceived to be the most effective. In general, the results provide sport psychology researchers and practitioners with a better understanding of the imagery-confidence relationship. The item level results are particularly meaningful for sport psychology practitioners because they indicate which images athletes used and perceived to be the most effective for building, maintaining, and regaining confidence.

The Use of Imagery by Successful Hockey Players: A Comparison Among Skill Levels

Abstract The study provides a comprehensive examination of how successful hockey players use imagery and replicates and extends other imagery research by considering skill level (high school, college and professional). The key variables of interest were the frequency of imagery use, the perceived function of imagery, imagery direction, and confidence in using imagery. Results are presented from the subscale and individual item level as based on the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Overall, MG-M imagery was used the most, and most images were considered to serve this function. Some images were debilitative - but they were not used very often. Athletes were confident in their ability to use imagery and in most cases confidence was positively correlated with imagery use.

A Narrative Review of the Relationships among Imagery, Exercise, and Self-Efficacy

We all know physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle, yet many people still live sedentary lifestyles. It is, therefore, important to develop theoretically based interventions that may serve to increase physical activity and exercise. This narrative review focuses on the relationships among imagery, self-efficacy and exercise, and makes a case for future researchers to investigate the effectiveness of exercise imagery interventions.

The Cognitive and Motivational Functions of Imagery Among Athletic Trainers

Knowledge of imagery is a required competency for athletic trainers (ATs) but research has yet to consider imagery use by ATs despite its relevant application for learning, planning, and controlling emotions in high stakes situations like rehabilitation, competency exams or novel injury situations. Aligned with the Applied Model of Mental Imagery, this study examined the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery used by 59 certified ATs and 34 AT students (N = 93, 19-48 years of age). Participants completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire modified for the population. Image function and direction were also considered. Imagery training was only reported by 23% of the participants but 50% reported encouraging their athletes to use imagery and 86% believed the skill enhances their duties. Internal consistencies of the five image content subscales ranged from .83 to .68 and inter-scale correlations ranged from .72 to .76. ATs reported using MG-Mastery most frequently followed by CS-Skills CG-Strategies MG-Arousal and MS-Goals. Independent t-tests indicated MG-Goals was used more by students than certified ATs, t(91)=2.04, p<.05, and by non-practicing ATs than those who practiced, t(91)=-4.01, p<.001. Participants from curriculum programs reported more use of MG-Arousal than those from internship programs, t(91)=2.23, p=.05 and there was no gender variation across subscales. A trend of significant, negative correlations between education and the three motivation functions of imagery indicated the more educated ATs used imagery less for controlling emotions, mastering skills and setting goals. However, overall, the most frequently cited reason for using individual images was for confidence, followed by anxiety, goals, and skills and strategies. The majority of images were perceived to help job performance while one CG-Strategies and 4/5 MG-Arousal items were perceived as harmful to performance. Enhancing AT curricula with systematic training in psychological skills would enhance AT performance and disseminate information to clients.