Sandra G.F. Bukkens

The nutritional value of edible insects

This paper provides an overview of the nutritional aspects of insect consumption (entomophagy) among indigenous populations. The nutritional quality of food insects is discussed with special emphasis on the role of food insects as a source of animal protein. Available data on the amino acid composition of the most common food insects are summarized, and the potential of insect protein to complement protein of various staple foods is analyzed. Micronutrient composition of insects is briefly discussed.

Models of energy analysis to assess the performance of food systems

Abstract This paper illustrates with numerical examples how models of energy analysis can enlarge the perspective to describe the performance of food systems. Energy analysis can provide an integrated assessment of costs and benefits either: (i) direct, that is the energy expenditure referring to food system related activities compared to the level of food security achieved; or (ii) indirect, that is, the impact of food system activities on the economic efficiency of society and on the ecological efficiency of natural processes in stabilizing the environment. Finally, it is shown that energy analysis can be used to discuss the changing role of the food system in the process of societal development.

Labor productivity: A biophysical definition and assessment

A model of energy analysis is presented to study the concept of labor productivity from a biophysical perspective. It is argued that current methods of defining and assessing labor productivity in the fields of work physiology and input/output energy analysis are relatively poor operational tools for assessing productivity in the economy and society. We propose to adopt society as the hierarchical level of analysis rather than the individual, as labor productivity can best be studied as a function of parameters related to the technological development of society. Parameters considered are: the ratio exosomatic/endosomatic energy used in society, the ratio working/non-working population, the return on the circulating energy investment, and the profile of human time allocated to the economic process. The links between patterns of human time allocation, population structure, standard of living, technological development, and demand on natural resources are analyzed. The results suggest that the role and meaning of human labor differ widely in societies with different levels of technological development.

An optimum population for North and Latin America.

The population of North America, which now stands at nearly 300 million people, is projected to double in about 60 years, while the population of nearly 500 million people in South America is projected to double in less than 40 years. Both of these populations obtain more than 99% of their food from the land, and this percentage will increase as these populations grow. Maintaining fertile and ample land is critical if these large populations are to be fed. Soil degradation by soil erosion is a serious problem on both continents. In addition, agricultural land is being lost to urbanization and highways because of rapid population growth. Nearly a half hectare of land is needed for urbanization for each person added to the North American population; this is already causing serious problems with agriculture in some states in the United States. The land resources that are critical for food production will be especially so if the populations of both continents double to nearly 2 billion. Land resources will also be critical when both continents deplete their fossil fuels in less than 100 years and have to turn to renewable energy sources. With about 2 billion people, there will be serious shortages of food, water, and energy resources and the standard of living will significantly decline. Our assessment suggests that for a relatively high standard of living in North and South America each continent should have no more than about 200 million people, or a total of 400 million.

Biodiversity use and technical performance of freshwater fish aquaculture in different socioeconomic contexts: China and Italy

Abstract The availability of natural resources and the socioeconomic context in which aquaculture is performed condition the choice of aquacultural production techniques. In this paper, we examine and compare the pattern of biodiversity use (the ecological side of the production process) and the technical coefficients (the economic side of the process) that characterize freshwater aquaculture in PR China and in Italy in relation to the role that freshwater aquaculture plays in these societies. The comparison between aquaculture in China and Italy covers the following aspects: (1) history and general statistics of aquaculture; (2) cultivated species and trophic structure of managed freshwater ecosystems; (3) technological characteristics of the production process, including inputs/outputs, yields, labor productivity, and fossil energy use; (4) role of freshwater aquaculture in relation to its socioeconomic context. In Italy, where socioeconomic constraints (high opportunity cost of labor and a food system dealing with a surplus of nutrients) overwhelm ecological constraints (through imports and technology), freshwater aquaculture operates with densities of nutrient flows outside the range typical of natural aquatic ecosystems. Freshwater bodies used for production are artificial and generally contain only one carnivorous species that depends for its survival on human management of inputs and waste disposal. In contrast, in China, up to nine different species (mainly herbivores) are kept in the same pond, and efforts are made to maintain as much as possible the natural mechanisms of regulation of matter and energy flows. This results in higher efficiency in terms of use of biological energy (from biological cycles) within the system, lower environmental loading, and less dependence on fossil energy inputs. However, the better biophysical performance of Chinese aquaculture is linked to low labor productivity. This makes it difficult to adopt such an ‘ecologically friendly’ solution in developed countries, such as Italy, where the opportunity cost of labor is high.

Sustainable development: Scientific and ethical assessments

The problem of assessing the sustainability of human development is discussed in theoretical and practical terms.In Part I, two theoretical tools for describing the challenge of assessing sustainable development are introduced and briefly discussed: (i) the use of an energetic model to describe the dynamic interaction between the human and the biophysical compartment; (ii) basic concepts derived from the hierarchy theory applied to the development of human society. Sustainable and ethical development of human society requires the consideration of three hierarchical levels: the biosphere, the societal and the individual level. Such a holistic assessment can be obtained by integrating scientific and ethical considerations.In Part II, data illustrating the current terms of the dilemma of human development are presented and discussed within the theoretical frame provided in Part I. It is argued that even if we had a better understanding of the consequeces of human activity on the biosphere, current modes of organization of human society and its economic activity do not readily enable adequate planning for the sustainable development of mankind. Ideologies that can bias the discussion and the assessment of sustainable and ethical development are discussed. No solution is at hand; therefore, when we consider human development today, we are facing a high level of uncertainty.

Multiple-Scale Integrated Assessment of Societal Metabolism: An Analytical Tool to Study Development and Sustainability

This paper presents an analytical approach - called Multiple-Scale Integrated Assessment of nobreak Societal Metabolism (MSIASM) - for analyzing the development of human society in relation to sustainability. MSIASM builds on the dynamic nature of societal metabolism, which is stabilized by autocatalytic loops operating around attractor points. This approach permits the study of trajectories of development of society. MSIASM is unique in that it handles, in an integrated way, variables referring to non-equivalent descriptive domains (coming from various scientific disciplines) and data gathered at distinct hierarchical levels (national statistics, sector-specific data, household survey).MSIASM can be used to develop a “tool kit” to perform sustainability checks by assessing simultaneously the viability of societal metabolism in relation to a set of non-equivalent constraints (technical, ecological, economic, and social constraints). The “tool kit” is flexible, since it is based on general principles and procedures. It can easily be tailored to specific situations (particular history, context, and availability ofbreak data).The text presents: (i) an overview of the MSIASM approach; (ii) latest developments related to dynamics and historical trends analysis (using data referring to Spain and Ecuador); and (iii) possible applications of this method in relation to the development of decision support analytical tools.

Limits to population size: Three scenarios of energy interaction between human society and ecosystem

A simple theoretical model describing the interaction between humans and their environment in terms of energy flows is proposed to check the compatibility between the density of energy throughput in human society and the density of energy throughput in the ecosystem. This model is then applied to analyze three different scenarios of energy interaction between human society and the ecosystem: (i) societal activity is supported exclusively by biophysical processes for energy input and conversion; (ii) society is fueled by ‘biofuels’ (biogas and alcohol) but power is generated by exosomatic technological devices (engines, etc.); (iii) society has ample access to a high-density energy input and exosomatic technological devices. For each scenario limits to human development are discussed, and estimates of a sustainable population size provided on the basis of compatibility between energy throughput in society and the environment.

Proposing a master’s programme on participatory integrated assessment of energy systems to promote energy access and energy efficiency in Southern Africa

Purpose This paper aims to present a new master’s programme for promoting energy access and energy efficiency in Southern Africa. Design/methodology/approach A transdisciplinary approach called “participatory integrated assessment of energy systems” (PARTICIPIA) was used for the development of the curriculum. This approach is based on the two emerging fields of “multi-scale integrated assessment” and “science for governance”, which bring innovative concepts and methods. Findings The application of the PARTICIPIA methodology to three case studies reveals that the proposed transdisciplinary approach could support energy and development policies in the region. The implementation of the PARTICIPIA curriculum in three higher education institutions reveals its ability to respond to the needs of specific contexts and its connection with existing higher education programmes. Practical implications Considering energy issues from a transdisciplinary approach in higher education is absolutely critical because such a holistic view cannot be achieved through engineering curricula. Deliberate and greater efforts should be made to integrate methods from “multi-scale integrated assessment” and “science for governance” in higher education curricula to train a new breed of modern-day energy planners in charge of coming up with solutions that are shared by all relevant stakeholders. Originality/value This paper presents an innovative higher education curriculum in terms of the attention given to energy access and energy efficiency that affect the southern Africa region and the nature of the methodology adopted to face these issues.