Sandra T. Sigmon

Gender differences in coping: A further test of socialization and role constraint theories

To further test role constraint and socialization theories of gender differences in coping, two studies were conducted to examine coping strategies in individuals occupying similar roles. The relations between coping strategy frequency and effectiveness and between coping strategy use and psychological functioning also were examined. Predominantly Caucasian female and male college students participated in the studies. Results indicated support for both socialization and role constraint theories. Effectiveness and frequency of coping strategy use were moderately correlated. Gender differences in cognitive appraisal varied with dispositional vs. situational assessment. The need for a more integrated model to explain gender differences in coping and implications for existing theories are discussed.

Cognitive-behavioral factors in seasonal affective disorder.

To longitudinally examine cognitive-behavioral correlates of seasonal affective disorder (SAD), the authors assessed women with a history of SAD and nondepressed, matched controls across fall, winter, and summer. SAD history participants reported more automatic negative thoughts throughout the year than controls and demonstrated a progression from decreased activity enjoyment during fall to reduced activity frequency during winter. Ruminative response style, measured in fall, predicted symptom severity during the winter. Across assessments, SAD history women endorsed greater depressive affect in response to low light intensity stimuli than to bright or ambiguous intensity stimuli, but less depressed mood to bright light stimuli than controls. These results suggest that the cognitive-behavioral factors related to nonseasonal depression may play a role in SAD.

Efficacy of emotion-focused and problem-focused group therapies for women with fertility problems.

Competing positions exist in the literature regarding whether problem-focused or emotion-focused coping is more useful when one confronts a chronic health-related problem. In this study, 29 infertile women, who on average had been attempting conception for almost 4 years, were assigned to six sessions of training in problem- or emotion-focused coping or to a no-treatment control condition. Problem-focused training produced improvements in general distress and infertility-specific well-being at treatment termination. However, emotion-focused training resulted in greater improvement at a 1-month follow-up. Emotion-focused participants reported less depression and more infertility-specific well-being at 1 month than did controls. At 18 months, problem-focused group members were more likely to have a child than were other participants. Results argue for the efficacy of both emotion-directed and problem-focused interventions in womens adjustment to infertility.

Ruminating and Distracting: The Effects of Sequential Tasks on Depressed Mood

Response styles theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987)provided the impetus for recent research effortsinvestigating the effects of rumination and distractionon depressed mood. This study elaborates on previous research by examining the sequential effects ofengaging in ruminating and distracting tasks. Resultsfrom two studies indicated that initially engaging in aruminating task maintained postinduction levels of dysphoric mood, whereas initially engagingin a distracting task reduced levels of dysphoric mood.More important, however, were the effects of task orderon mood. When participants engaged in a distracting taskfollowing aruminating task, dysphoric mood, which had been maintainedwith a ruminating task, was reduced to premoodinductionlevels. Of equal importance, individuals who ruminatedafter distracting maintained their current mood and did not report an increase in depressedmood. In the second study, engaging in sequentialrumination tasks further prolonged depressed mood,whereas engaging in sequential distraction tasks reduceddepressed mood. The results suggest that, althoughengaging in a rumination task maintains depressed moodand engaging in a distraction task reduces it, the orderin which these tasks are performed is also important. The implications of these results for responsestyles theory are discussed.

The impact of anxiety sensitivity, bodily expectations, and cultural beliefs on menstrual symptom reporting: a test of the menstrual reactivity hypothesis.

According to the menstrual reactivity hypothesis, certain women report more severe as well as a greater number of menstrual symptoms due to accurate reports of physical symptoms and expectations (e.g., cultural beliefs, sex roles, bodily sensations). To test this hypothesis and to further examine the role that anxiety sensitivity plays in menstrual symptom reporting, women varying in levels of anxiety sensitivity completed measures of sex role socialization, menstrual attitudes, bodily preoccupations, affect, and fear of illness. To assess psychophysiological reactivity and the applicability of response styles theory to individuals varying in anxiety sensitivity, skin conductance was measured as participants engaged in a rumination or distraction task. In addition, participants completed a modified Stroop task consisting of anxiety, menstrual, and neutral words followed by a surprise recognition task. Retrospectively and prospectively, women high in anxiety sensitivity consistently reported more severe menstrual symptoms. High anxiety sensitivity women also reported preoccupation with bodily sensations and more negative attitudes toward illness, but did not differ from low anxiety sensitivity women on measures of menstrual attitudes or sex role socialization. While engaging in a rumination task, high anxiety sensitivity women exhibited more frequent skin conductance responses and greater skin conductance response magnitude than low anxiety sensitivity women. In addition, after the rumination task, high anxiety sensitivity women recognized more anxiety-related words from the Stroop task. Menstrual cycle phase had less of an impact than anxiety sensitivity level on the current results. Implications of these results for the menstrual reactivity hypothesis and rumination are discussed.

Seasonal mood patterns in a northeastern college sample.

Given that seasonality can be conceptualized along a developmental continuum, it is surprising that the college population has been largely excluded from previous epidemiological research on Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). In this study, college students completed the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire (SPAQ) and Beck Depression Inventory twice during either the Fall or Spring academic semester. SAD prevalence rates were similar to those of nearby adult samples. The SPAQ demonstrated high test-retest reliability when administered during different seasons; however, gender differences only emerged during winter SPAQ administrations.

Psychophysiological, somatic, and affective changes across the menstrual cycle in women with panic disorder.

This study explored menstrual symptoms, somatic focus, negative affect, and psychophysiological responding across the menstrual cycle in women with panic disorder and controls. Women with and without panic disorder completed a psychophysiological task and self-report measures of menstrual symptoms, somatic focus, and negative affect on 4 occasions across 2 menstrual cycles (twice during intermenstrual and premenstrual phases). Women in the panic disorder group exhibited greater skin conductance magnitude and more frequent skin conductance responses to anxiety-provoking stimuli during the premenstrual phase than did controls. Compared to controls, women with panic disorder endorsed more severe menstrual symptoms relating to bodily sensations, anxiety sensitivity, state and trait anxiety, fear of body sensations, and illness-related concerns. The applicability of anxiety sensitivity to understanding the relation of menstrual reactivity and panic disorder is discussed.

Anxiety sensitivity and menstrual cycle reactivity: Psychophysiological and self-report differences☆

Abstract The role of anxiety sensitivity in the etiology and maintenance of various anxiety disorders has received increased attention over the past decade. To date, no studies have empirically addressed the relationship between anxiety sensitivity, physiological reactivity, and self-reports of anxiety symptomatology across the menstrual cycle. In this study, high- and low-anxiety sensitivity women in either the premenstrual or intermenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle completed questionnaires and listened to anxiety and neutral scenes while psychophysiological data were collected. In addition, mood ratings were obtained at baseline and after scene presentations. High anxiety sensitivity sitivity participants scored higher on measures of anxiety, depression, and menstrual distress than low anxiety sensitivity females. Premenstrually, high anxiety sensitivity females exhibited greater skin conductance response frequency and magnitude to the anxiety scenes compared to the other three groups. Similar results were obtained when initial levels of state anxiety and panic history were controlled for statistically. Furthermore, high anxiety sensitivity females reported more anxiety and depressed mood following presentation of anxiety scenes. Implications of these results for the mediation of menstrual cycle timing and anxiety sensitivity hypotheses are discussed.

Sensitivity to aversive events in depression: Antecedent, concomitant, or consequent?

This study tested whether sensitivity to aversive events is a concomitant versus antecedent/consequent of depression. Twenty currently depressed subjects, twenty subjects with remitted depression, and twenty control subjects completed psychophysiological and learning tasks involving aversive components. Both currently depressed and remitted subjects, when compared to control subjects, exhibited greater decreases in skin resistance response reactions to negative social scenes and a greater sensitivity to extinction in the learning condition involving an aversive component. The fact that the responses of remitted subjects were very similar to those of currently depressed subjects on both tasks is consistent with the view that sensitivity to aversive events is an antecedent or consequent of depression, as opposed to being only a concomitant. The results also provide some support for the passive avoidance model of depression.

The role of anxiety level, coping styles, and cycle phase in menstrual distress☆

Using three samples, researchers investigated the relation between various anxiety levels, coping strategy use, and menstrual cycle phase to menstrual distress. In Studies 1 and 2, women low in anxiety sensitivity used more acceptance coping strategies and women high in anxiety sensitivity reported using more maladaptive coping strategies. In Study 2, women with medium anxiety sensitivity reported similar coping strategies to women low in anxiety. Menstrual cycle phase did not differentially affect coping strategy use in women varying in anxiety sensitivity levels in Studies 1 and 2. In addition to depressed mood emerging as a significant predictor of premenstrual distress in these two studies for all participants, avoidance coping for women high in anxiety sensitivity and problem-focused coping for women low in anxiety sensitivity were also significant predictors of premenstrual distress. In Study 3, during the premenstrual phase, women with panic disorder, compared to controls, reported using more avoidance coping whereas controls reported used more active coping and seeking social support for emotional and instrumental reasons. Results are discussed within a continuity model from high anxiety sensitivity to anxiety disorder for maladaptive coping and menstrual distress.