Sanjay Krishnaswami

The global burden of injury: incidence, mortality, disability-adjusted life years and time trends from the Global Burden of Disease study 2013

Background The Global Burden of Diseases (GBD), Injuries, and Risk Factors study used the disability-adjusted life year (DALY) to quantify the burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors. This paper provides an overview of injury estimates from the 2013 update of GBD, with detailed information on incidence, mortality, DALYs and rates of change from 1990 to 2013 for 26 causes of injury, globally, by region and by country. Methods Injury mortality was estimated using the extensive GBD mortality database, corrections for ill-defined cause of death and the cause of death ensemble modelling tool. Morbidity estimation was based on inpatient and outpatient data sets, 26 cause-of-injury and 47 nature-of-injury categories, and seven follow-up studies with patient-reported long-term outcome measures. Results In 2013, 973 million (uncertainty interval (UI) 942 to 993) people sustained injuries that warranted some type of healthcare and 4.8 million (UI 4.5 to 5.1) people died from injuries. Between 1990 and 2013 the global age-standardised injury DALY rate decreased by 31% (UI 26% to 35%). The rate of decline in DALY rates was significant for 22 cause-of-injury categories, including all the major injuries. Conclusions Injuries continue to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the developed and developing world. The decline in rates for almost all injuries is so prominent that it warrants a general statement that the world is becoming a safer place to live in. However, the patterns vary widely by cause, age, sex, region and time and there are still large improvements that need to be made.

A Clinical Tool for the Prediction of Venous Thromboembolism in Pediatric Trauma Patients

IMPORTANCE Although rare, the incidence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in pediatric trauma patients is increasing, and the consequences of VTE in children are significant. Studies have demonstrated increasing VTE risk in older pediatric trauma patients and improved VTE rates with institutional interventions. While national evidence-based guidelines for VTE screening and prevention are in place for adults, none exist for pediatric patients, to our knowledge. OBJECTIVES To develop a risk prediction calculator for VTE in children admitted to the hospital after traumatic injury to assist efforts in developing screening and prophylaxis guidelines for this population. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS Retrospective review of 536,423 pediatric patients 0 to 17 years old using the National Trauma Data Bank from January 1, 2007, to December 31, 2012. Five mixed-effects logistic regression models of varying complexity were fit on a training data set. Model validity was determined by comparison of the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) for the training and validation data sets from the original model fit. A clinical tool to predict the risk of VTE based on individual patient clinical characteristics was developed from the optimal model. MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURE Diagnosis of VTE during hospital admission. RESULTS Venous thromboembolism was diagnosed in 1141 of 536,423 children (overall rate, 0.2%). The AUROCs in the training data set were high (range, 0.873-0.946) for each model, with minimal AUROC attenuation in the validation data set. A prediction tool was developed from a model that achieved a balance of high performance (AUROCs, 0.945 and 0.932 in the training and validation data sets, respectively; P = .048) and parsimony. Points are assigned to each variable considered (Glasgow Coma Scale score, age, sex, intensive care unit admission, intubation, transfusion of blood products, central venous catheter placement, presence of pelvic or lower extremity fractures, and major surgery), and the points total is converted to a VTE risk score. The predicted risk of VTE ranged from 0.0% to 14.4%. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE We developed a simple clinical tool to predict the risk of developing VTE in pediatric trauma patients. It is based on a model created using a large national database and was internally validated. The clinical tool requires external validation but provides an initial step toward the development of the specific VTE protocols for pediatric trauma patients.

Should intraoperative hypercapnea or hypercarbia raise concern in neonates undergoing thoracoscopic repair of diaphragmatic hernia of bochdalek

BACKGROUND Better understanding of cardiopulmonary physiology in children with congenital diaphragmatic hernia of Bochdalek (CDH) has facilitated improved survival. In addition, it has allowed surgeons to employ minimally invasive techniques to their repair under conditions that might result in hypercarbia and/or recurrent pulmonary hypertension. MATERIALS AND METHODS Under institutional review board approval, the records of all neonates at a single institution who underwent thoracoscopic CDH (T-CDH) were reviewed with attention to the incidence of intraoperative hypercapnea (elevated end tidal CO(2)) or hypercarbia (increased PCO(2) by blood gas measurement) and any associated complications. RESULTS From 2004 through 2007, 31 consecutive neonates, including those who had undergone extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, had T-CDH. CO(2) insufflation to 3 mm Hg was used until the viscera were reduced within the abdominal cavity. The operative technique and outcomes are described elsewhere. Preoperative analyses revealed a mean arterial PCO(2) of 53 +/- 11 torr and SaO(2) of 95 +/- 5%. The mean highest recorded intraoperative end-tidal CO(2) level was 64 +/- 13 and correlated poorly with the highest arterial PCO(2) (mean, 78 +/- 29 torr; range, 29-130). The mean lowest recorded intraoperative SaO(2) was 92 +/- 8% with only two values less than 88%. The average lowest intraoperative mean arterial blood pressure was 47 +/- 8 mm Hg (range, 34-70 mm Hg). No neonate received inhaled nitric oxide, intravenous buffer administration, or escalation of inotrope administration during the procedures nor did any experience recurrent pulmonary hypertension postoperatively. SUMMARY Hypercapnea and hypercarbia are common phenomena during T-CDH but do not appear to correlate with one another nor result in clinically evident recurrent pulmonary hypertension, hypoxemia, hypotension, need for support with vasoactive medications, inhaled nitric oxide, or buffering agents.

The Global Paediatric Surgery Network: A Model of Subspecialty Collaboration Within Global Surgery

Attention to surgical conditions in lowand middle-income countries (LMICs) has increased in recent years. Because half of the population in the world’s poorest countries are children [1], paediatric surgical conditions compose a significant proportion of the global burden of disease (BoD), and there are critical shortages in workforce and skills to treat these diseases in LMICs. Several populationbased studies have highlighted the magnitude of the need for paediatric surgery and the limited capacity, both in human resources and in infrastructure, to tackle the problem [2, 3]. Africa, in particular, has a grave shortage of paediatric surgeons. The number of fully trained paediatric surgeons ranges from 1 in Malawi (population 13 million) to 120 in Egypt (population of 80 million). In more than

The pediatric surgery workforce in low- and middle-income countries: problems and priorities

Most of the world is in a surgical workforce crisis. While a lack of human resources is only one component of the myriad issues affecting surgical care in resource-poor regions, it is arguably the most consequential. This article examines the current state of the pediatric surgical workforce in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and the reasons for the current shortfalls. We also note progress that has been made in capacity building and discuss priorities going forward. The existing literature on this subject has naturally focused on regions with the greatest workforce needs, particularly sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, wherever possible we have included workforce data and related literature from LMICs worldwide. The pediatric surgeon is of course critically dependent on multi-disciplinary teams. Surgeons in high-income countries (HICs) often take for granted the ready availability of excellent anesthesia providers, surgically trained nurses, radiologists, pathologists, and neonatologists among many others. While the need exists to examine all of these disciplines and their contribution to the delivery of surgical services for children in LMICs, for the purposes of this review, we will focus primarily on the role of the pediatric surgeon.

Interest in international surgical volunteerism: Results of a survey of members of the American Pediatric Surgical Association

PURPOSE This study assesses interest in international volunteer work by members of the American Pediatric Surgical Association (APSA) and attempts to identify demographics, motivations, obstacles, and institutional issues of the respondents. METHODS An online survey service was used to send a 25-question survey to all APSA members with email addresses in November 2009. An answer to all questions was not required. Written comments were encouraged. RESULTS The survey was sent to 807 members of whom 316 responded, for a response rate of 39%. International work had been done previously by 48% of respondents, whereas 95% stated that they were interested or perhaps interested in doing so. Most (83%) were interested in operating with local surgeons to teach them how to perform procedures. Altruism was the chief motivation in 75% of respondents. Primary obstacles to doing international work were family obligations and lack of time, although 37% stated that a lack of information about volunteer opportunities was an issue. A significant number of respondents (48%) stated that their institution had no established international collaborations. CONCLUSION This study suggests that there is interest in international volunteerism among many members of APSA. Understanding the issues surrounding surgical volunteerism may facilitate humanitarian involvement among pediatric surgeons.

The global paediatric surgery network: early measures of interest in the website.

PURPOSE The Global Paediatric Surgery Network (GPSN) website was launched in May 2010, with the following goals: to serve as a clearing house for pediatric surgery volunteer work performed worldwide, to provide online resources for surgeons working in areas of limited medical resources, and to provide practical and educational information for surgeons who wish to volunteer. The purpose of this study was to assess use of the website over the first year since its launch (May 6, 2010-May 5, 2011). METHODS The GPSN website was examined for number of pages, number of listings in Past Work, Present Work, and Help Needed categories, as well as number of volunteers available. The online tool Google Analytics was used to assess parameters that measure use of the website, such as number of visits, number of page views, number of visitors, time on the website, and geographic origin of visitors. RESULTS The GPSN website consists of 30 pages. There are 9 listings in Past Work, 23 listings in Present Work, and 13 listings in Help Needed categories. 118 people have registered as willing to volunteer, and 96 have indicated that they are able to work in times of a natural disaster. There were 8437 visits to the website, with 28 916 page views by 5170 visitors from 145 countries, with an average number of page views of 3.43 and an average time on the website of 4:05 min. The most visited pages were the homepage, the meetings page, and the pediatric surgery organizations page. 4 websites of pediatric surgery organizations have links to the GPSN website. CONCLUSIONS Based on early website use, we conclude that there is an interest in the GPSN. We speculate that participation in the GPSN will continue to grow, but that there is a continued need to promote the website in the global pediatric surgery community.

Pediatric surgical capacity in Africa: Current status and future needs

BACKGROUND African pediatric surgery (PS) faces multiple challenges. Information regarding existing resources is limited. We surveyed African pediatric surgeons to determine available resources and clinical, educational, and collaborative needs. METHODS Members of the Pan-African Pediatric Surgical Association (PAPSA) and the Global Pediatric Surgery Network (GPSN) completed a structured email survey covering PS providers, facilities, resources, workload, education/training, disease patterns, and collaboration priorities. RESULTS Of 288 deployed surveys, 96 were completed (33%) from 26 countries (45% of African countries). Median PS providers/million included 1 general surgeon and 0.26 pediatric surgeons. Median pediatric facilities/million included 0.03 hospitals, 0.06 ICUs, and 0.17 surgical wards. Neonatal ventilation was available in 90% of countries, fluoroscopy in 70%, TPN in 50%, and frozen section pathology in 35%. Median surgical procedures/institution/year was 852. Median waiting time was 40days for elective procedures and 7 days? for emergencies. Weighted average percent mortality for key surgical conditions varied between 1% (Sierra Leone) and 54% (Burkina Faso). Providers ranked collaborative professional development highest and direct clinical care lowest priority in projects with high-income partners. CONCLUSIONS The broad deficits identified in PS human and material resources in Africa suggest the need for a global collaborative effort to address the PS gaps. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 5, expert opinion without explicit critical appraisal.

Preparing and Sustaining Your Career in Academic Global Surgery

Academic Global Surgery (AGS) comes with a set of unique challenges for those wishing to enter it. As a person coming into this new field, it is up to you to view these challenges as opportunities rather than barriers (Box 4.1). The most important factor in achieving a positive perspective is to figure out what truly ignites your thoughts and emotions. What research project makes you want to stay up all night writing a grant? What clinical or educational idea has you teleconferencing at all hours with colleagues around the globe? When you struggle with the slow pace of progress, when your boss does not understand your path or perhaps most importantly when you are successful in AGS, the answer to these questions will help you remember why you chose to pursue this career.

Assessing the efficacy of the fundamentals of research and career development course overseas.

BACKGROUND As the Fundamentals of Research and Career Development Course (FRCDC) is conducted internationally, questions have arisen regarding the cultural appropriateness of the United States (US) course. We therefore assessed the US-based teaching methodology during the FRCDC in Abuja, Nigeria. We hypothesized that the US-based instructional methods would be effective. METHODS Twenty questions were distributed to attendees of the FRCDC prior to commencement. The same 20 questions were administered at the conclusion of the course after random reordering. Differences between the pre- and post-test results were assessed for normalcy and compared using the paired t-test. RESULTS There were 89 attendees, of whom 60 completed the pre-test and 77 completed the post-test. The pre-test group answered 12.3 ± 2.6 questions correctly, which improved to 15.0 ± 2.6 in the post-test group (P < 0.001). On the pre-test, the least common correct answers were for questions regarding type 1 and 2 error (16.7% correct), the definition of health services and outcomes research (26.7%), and how to best address missing data (26.7%). On the post-test, the questions with the least common correct answers were regarding the definition of health services and outcomes research (35%), and the components of an NIH grant (37.7%). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the FRCDC in Nigeria as given by US faculty has short-term efficacy. Attendees were able to improve their scores despite the cultural differences between them and the lecturers. Our next goal will be to demonstrate long-term efficacy at future courses in the region using similar questionnaire strategies.