Sanneke Bolhuis

Towards Process-Oriented Teaching for Self-Directed Lifelong Learning: A Multidimensional Perspective.

Self-directed learning is often embraced as an important educational goal, although for quite different reasons, from the improvement of school learning to the critical assessment of the claims of democracy. Most reasons imply that self-direction is important in learning throughout life. Therefore process-oriented teaching, which aims to foster self-directed lifelong learning, needs a broad and multidimensional theoretical basis. The important role of experiences in the social and cultural context, prior knowledge, and the emotional aspects in learning is highlighted, and related to self-directed learning in life. Important aspects of process-oriented teaching are summarized in four principles. A multidimensional approach of learning also provides a conceptual basis to teachers learning. Developing a process-oriented approach in teaching presents a major challenge for teachers as well as for schools.

Toward Self-Directed Learning in Secondary Schools: What Do Teachers Do?.

Abstract Promoting self-directed learning has become an important educational goal. This goal requires a new role for teachers: not traditional transmission of knowledge but activating and process-oriented teaching. An observational study was conducted to establish the features of teaching in Dutch senior secondary education. Activating features of teaching were more predominant than the mere transmission of knowledge, but process-oriented teaching occurred very little. In other words the observed teachers did not devote much attention to teaching the students how to learn. Two patterns of activating were discerned: one pattern in which the teacher interacts with students focusing on the subject matter, and another pattern where the students are working on their own and the teacher is coaching and supervising.

Experienced teacher learning within the context of reciprocal peer coaching

A considerable amount of literature on peer coaching suggests that the professional development of teachers can be improved through experimentation, observation, reflection, the exchange of professional ideas, and shared problem‐solving. Reciprocal peer coaching provides teachers with an opportunity to engage in such activities in an integrated form. Even though empirical evidence shows effects of peer coaching and teacher satisfaction about coaching, the actual individual professional development processes have not been studied extensively. This article offers a way to analyse and categorize the learning processes of teachers who take part in a reciprocal peer coaching trajectory by using the Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth as an analytical tool. Learning is understood as a change in the teacher’s cognition and/or behaviour. The assumption underlying the Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth is that change occurs in four distinct domains that encompass the teacher’s professional world: the personal domain, the domain of practice, the domain of consequence and the external domain. Change in one domain does not always lead to change in another, but when changes over domains do occur, different change patterns can be described. Repeated multiple data collection methods were used to obtain a rich description of patterns of change of four experienced secondary school teachers. The data sources were: audiotapes of coaching conferences, audiotapes of semi‐structured learning interviews by telephone, and digital diaries with teacher reports of learning experiences. Qualitative analysis of the three data sources resulted in two different types of patterns: including the external domain and not including the external domain. Patterns of change within a context of reciprocal peer coaching do not necessarily have to include reciprocal peer coaching activities. When, however, patterns do include the external reciprocal peer coaching domain, this is often part of a change process in which reactive activities in the domains of practice and consequence are involved as well. These patterns often demonstrate more complex processes of change.

Assessing the quality of clinical teachers: a systematic review of content and quality of questionnaires for assessing clinical teachers.

BackgroundLearning in a clinical environment differs from formal educational settings and provides specific challenges for clinicians who are teachers. Instruments that reflect these challenges are needed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of clinical teachers.ObjectiveTo systematically review the content, validity, and aims of questionnaires used to assess clinical teachers.Data SourcesMEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and ERIC from 1976 up to March 2010.Review MethodsThe searches revealed 54 papers on 32 instruments. Data from these papers were documented by independent researchers, using a structured format that included content of the instrument, validation methods, aims of the instrument, and its setting.ResultsAspects covered by the instruments predominantly concerned the use of teaching strategies (included in 30 instruments), supporter role (29), role modeling (27), and feedback (26). Providing opportunities for clinical learning activities was included in 13 instruments. Most studies referred to literature on good clinical teaching, although they failed to provide a clear description of what constitutes a good clinical teacher. Instrument length varied from 1 to 58 items. Except for two instruments, all had to be completed by clerks/residents. Instruments served to provide formative feedback ( instruments) but were also used for resource allocation, promotion, and annual performance review (14 instruments). All but two studies reported on internal consistency and/or reliability; other aspects of validity were examined less frequently.ConclusionsNo instrument covered all relevant aspects of clinical teaching comprehensively. Validation of the instruments was often limited to assessment of internal consistency and reliability. Available instruments for assessing clinical teachers should be used carefully, especially for consequential decisions. There is a need for more valid comprehensive instruments.

Entering medical practice for the very first time: emotional talk, meaning and identity development

Medical Education 2012: 46: 1074–1087

Bridging the gap: How is integrating communication skills with medical content throughout the curriculum valued by students

OBJECTIVE To describe a program with integrated learning of communication and consultation skills developed with the intention of preventing deterioration of communication skills, and to present student evaluation data. METHODS Description and evaluation of the program through: (1) monthly student evaluations; (2) questionnaire on student perceptions about the integrated curriculum; (3) a questionnaire about the value of one specific integrated training preceding the pediatric clerkship. RESULTS Key components of training throughout years 3-6 are reinforcement throughout the clinical years, adapting communication training to the clinical context of clerkships using a sandwich model with cycles of preparation, clerkship, and reflection. EVALUATION response rates were 69%, 93% and 93%, respectively. Students value practicing integration of communication and medical content with SPs who represent the population of their next clerkships. They appreciate the multisource feedback during the training, feedback by clerkship specific specialists and SPs is valued most. CONCLUSIONS This description shows an example of an integrated curriculum that helps students to feel well prepared for their communication tasks in subsequent clerkships. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Designing and implementing communication curricula to address the issue of integration is feasible. The effects of such integrated programs should be subject to future studies.

Do images influence assessment in anatomy? Exploring the effect of images on item difficulty and item discrimination

Anatomists often use images in assessments and examinations. This study aims to investigate the influence of different types of images on item difficulty and item discrimination in written assessments. A total of 210 of 460 students volunteered for an extra assessment in a gross anatomy course. This assessment contained 39 test items grouped in seven themes. The answer format alternated per theme and was either a labeled image or an answer list, resulting in two versions containing both images and answer lists. Subjects were randomly assigned to one version. Answer formats were compared through item scores. Both examinations had similar overall difficulty and reliability. Two cross‐sectional images resulted in greater item difficulty and item discrimination, compared to an answer list. A schematic image of fetal circulation led to decreased item difficulty and item discrimination. Three images showed variable effects. These results show that effects on assessment scores are dependent on the type of image used. Results from the two cross‐sectional images suggest an extra ability is being tested. Data from a scheme of fetal circulation suggest a cueing effect. Variable effects from other images indicate that a context‐dependent interaction takes place with the content of questions. The conclusion is that item difficulty and item discrimination can be affected when images are used instead of answer lists; thus, the use of images as a response format has potential implications for the validity of test items. Anat Sci Educ

School Improvement Within a Knowledge Economy: Fostering Professional Learning from a Multidimensional Perspective

Modern societies are gradually moving towards a knowledge economy in which knowledge productivity will be the dominant factor. The radical increase of information technology has already transformed modes of doing business, the nature of services and products, the meaning of time in work, and the processes of learning. These forces have contributed to a belief that knowledge production and continuous innovation are key to survival (Fenwick, 2001). Knowledge production, in fact, is crucial for the improvement of work processes, products and services, being demanded by our rapidly moving society. This situation stresses the importance of a competent workforce. As work in the new economy increasingly focuses on knowledge production, rethinking traditional ways of organizing work and creating powerful learning environments in organizations is crucial (Kessels, 2001).

Collaborative group work: Effects of group size and assignment structure on learning gain, student satisfaction and perceived participation

Background: Collaborative group sessions in Nijmegen include 15 students who work all together on a group assignment. Sometimes, the group is split-up in three and every subgroup elaborates a part of the assignment. At the end, they peer-teach each other. It is believed that the split-up enhances participation and therefore learning gain. Aims: To establish the effect of group size and structure of the assignment on the perceived participation, the satisfaction and learning gain of collaborative group sessions. Methods: In this study, 27 groups of 15 students were equally divided into: A-group: all 15 students working on the complete assignment. B-group: subgroups of 5 students working on the complete assignment. C-group: subgroups of 5 students working on a smaller part, and peer-teaching each other at the end of the group session. All students took a pre-test, a post-test and a follow-up test and completed a questionnaire. Questionnaires were analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post hoc by multiple comparisons. Learning gain was analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA. Results: A group size effect is observed in favor of working in subgroups. Perceived participation of the students differs between A and B (p ≤ 0.001) and between A and C (p ≤ 0.001), but not between B and C. Also, an assignment effect is found in favor of the smaller assignment combined with peer-teaching. The students’ satisfaction differs between A and C (p ≤ 0.003) and between B and C (p ≤ 0.001), but not between A and B. The C-group also shows higher test results (p ≤ 0.043). Conclusions: The students prefer smaller groups as well as smaller assignments including peer-teaching. A possible larger learning gain of this format needs to be re-investigated.

Early clinical experience: do students learn what we expect?

Medical Education 2011: 45: 731–740