Sarah C. Atkinson

Structure and Evolution of a Novel Dimeric Enzyme from a Clinically Important Bacterial Pathogen

Dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) catalyzes the first committed step of the lysine biosynthetic pathway. The tetrameric structure of DHDPS is thought to be essential for enzymatic activity, as isolated dimeric mutants of Escherichia coli DHDPS possess less than 2.5% that of the activity of the wild-type tetramer. It has recently been proposed that the dimeric form lacks activity due to increased dynamics. Tetramerization, by buttressing two dimers together, reduces dynamics in the dimeric unit and explains why all active bacterial DHDPS enzymes to date have been shown to be homo-tetrameric. However, in this study we demonstrate for the first time that DHDPS from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) exists in a monomer-dimer equilibrium in solution. Fluorescence-detected analytical ultracentrifugation was employed to show that the dimerization dissociation constant of MRSA-DHDPS is 33 nm in the absence of substrates and 29 nm in the presence of (S)-aspartate semialdehyde (ASA), but is 20-fold tighter in the presence of the substrate pyruvate (1.6 nm). The MRSA-DHDPS dimer exhibits a ping-pong kinetic mechanism (kcat = 70 ± 2 s-1, KmPyruvate = 0.11 ± 0.01 mm, and KmASA = 0.22 ± 0.02 mm) and shows ASA substrate inhibition with a KsiASA of 2.7 ± 0.9 mm. We also demonstrate that unlike the E. coli tetramer, the MRSA-DHDPS dimer is insensitive to lysine inhibition. The near atomic resolution (1.45Å) crystal structure confirms the dimeric quaternary structure and reveals that the dimerization interface of the MRSA enzyme is more extensive in buried surface area and noncovalent contacts than the equivalent interface in tetrameric DHDPS enzymes from other bacterial species. These data provide a detailed mechanistic insight into DHDPS catalysis and the evolution of quaternary structure of this important bacterial enzyme.

Characterisation of the First Enzymes Committed to Lysine Biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

In plants, the lysine biosynthetic pathway is an attractive target for both the development of herbicides and increasing the nutritional value of crops given that lysine is a limiting amino acid in cereals. Dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) and dihydrodipicolinate reductase (DHDPR) catalyse the first two committed steps of lysine biosynthesis. Here, we carry out for the first time a comprehensive characterisation of the structure and activity of both DHDPS and DHDPR from Arabidopsis thaliana. The A. thaliana DHDPS enzyme (At-DHDPS2) has similar activity to the bacterial form of the enzyme, but is more strongly allosterically inhibited by (S)-lysine. Structural studies of At-DHDPS2 show (S)-lysine bound at a cleft between two monomers, highlighting the allosteric site; however, unlike previous studies, binding is not accompanied by conformational changes, suggesting that binding may cause changes in protein dynamics rather than large conformation changes. DHDPR from A. thaliana (At-DHDPR2) has similar specificity for both NADH and NADPH during catalysis, and has tighter binding of substrate than has previously been reported. While all known bacterial DHDPR enzymes have a tetrameric structure, analytical ultracentrifugation, and scattering data unequivocally show that At-DHDPR2 exists as a dimer in solution. The exact arrangement of the dimeric protein is as yet unknown, but ab initio modelling of x-ray scattering data is consistent with an elongated structure in solution, which does not correspond to any of the possible dimeric pairings observed in the X-ray crystal structure of DHDPR from other organisms. This increased knowledge of the structure and function of plant lysine biosynthetic enzymes will aid future work aimed at improving primary production.

The Anopheles-midgut APN1 structure reveals a new malaria transmission-blocking vaccine epitope

Mosquito-based malaria transmission–blocking vaccines (mTBVs) target midgut-surface antigens of the Plasmodium parasites obligate vector, the Anopheles mosquito. The alanyl aminopeptidase N (AnAPN1) is the leading mTBV immunogen; however, AnAPN1s role in Plasmodium infection of the mosquito and how anti-AnAPN1 antibodies functionally block parasite transmission have remained elusive. Here we present the 2.65-Å crystal structure of AnAPN1 and the immunoreactivity and transmission-blocking profiles of three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to AnAPN1, including mAb 4H5B7, which effectively blocks transmission of natural strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Using the AnAPN1 structure, we map the conformation-dependent 4H5B7 neoepitope to a previously uncharacterized region on domain 1 and further demonstrate that nonhuman-primate neoepitope-specific IgG also blocks parasite transmission. We discuss the prospect of a new biological function of AnAPN1 as a receptor for Plasmodium in the mosquito midgut and the implications for redesigning the AnAPN1 mTBV.Mosquito-based malaria transmission-blocking vaccines (mTBVs) target midgut-surface antigens of the Plasmodium parasites obligate vector, the Anopheles mosquito. The alanyl aminopeptidase N (AnAPN1) is the leading mTBV immunogen; however AnAPN1s role in Plasmodium infection of the mosquito and how anti-AnAPN1 antibodies functionally block parasite transmission remains elusive. Here we present the 2.65 Å crystal structure of AnAPN1 and the immunoreactivity and transmission-blocking profile of three AnAPN1 monoclonal antibodies (mAb), including mAb 4H5B7, which effectively block transmission of natural strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Utilizing the AnAPN1 structure we map the conformation-dependent 4H5B7 neo-epitope to a previously uncharacterized region on domain 1, and further demonstrate that non-human primate neo-epitope-specific IgG also block parasite transmission. We discuss the prospect of a novel biological function of AnAPN1 as a receptor for Plasmodium in the mosquito midgut and the implications for redesigning the AnAPN1 mTBV.

Enzymology of Bacterial Lysine Biosynthesis

Lysine is an essential amino acid in the mammalian diet, but can be synthesised de novo in bacteria, plants and some fungi (Dogovski et al., 2009; Hutton et al., 2007). In bacteria, the lysine biosynthesis pathway, also known as the diaminopimelate (DAP) pathway (Fig. 1), yields the important metabolites meso-2,6-diaminopimelate (meso-DAP) and lysine. Lysine is utilised for protein synthesis in bacteria and forms part of the peptidoglycan cross-link structure in the cell wall of most Gram-positive species; whilst meso-DAP is the peptidoglycan cross-linking moiety in the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria and also Gram-positive Bacillus species (Burgess et al., 2008; Mitsakos et al., 2008; Voss et al., 2010) (Fig. 1).

X-ray crystal structure and specificity of the Plasmodium falciparum malaria aminopeptidase PfM18AAP

The malarial aminopeptidases have emerged as promising new drug targets for the development of novel antimalarial drugs. The M18AAP of Plasmodium falciparum malaria is a metallo-aminopeptidase that we show demonstrates a highly restricted specificity for peptides with an N-terminal Glu or Asp residue. Thus, the enzyme may function alongside other aminopeptidases in effecting the complete degradation or turnover of proteins, such as host hemoglobin, which provides a free amino acid pool for the growing parasite. Inhibition of PfM18AAPs function using antisense RNA is detrimental to the intra-erythrocytic malaria parasite and, hence, it has been proposed as a potential novel drug target. We report the X-ray crystal structure of the PfM18AAP aminopeptidase and reveal its complex dodecameric assembly arranged via dimer and trimer units that interact to form a large tetrahedron shape that completely encloses the 12 active sites within a central cavity. The four entry points to the catalytic lumen are each guarded by 12 large flexible loops that could control substrate entry into the catalytic sites. PfM18AAP thus resembles a proteasomal-like machine with multiple active sites able to degrade peptide substrates that enter the central lumen. The Plasmodium enzyme shows significant structural differences around the active site when compared to recently determined structures of its mammalian and human homologs, which provides a platform from which a rational approach to inhibitor design of new malaria-specific drugs can begin.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of dihydrodipicolinate synthase from Clostridium botulinum in the presence of its substrate pyruvate.

In this paper, the crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis to near-atomic resolution of DHDPS from Clostridium botulinum crystallized in the presence of its substrate pyruvate are presented. The enzyme crystallized in a number of forms using a variety of PEG precipitants, with the best crystal diffracting to 1.2 A resolution and belonging to space group C2, in contrast to the unbound form, which had trigonal symmetry. The unit-cell parameters were a = 143.4, b = 54.8, c = 94.3 A, beta = 126.3 degrees . The crystal volume per protein weight (V(M)) was 2.3 A(3) Da(-1) (based on the presence of two monomers in the asymmetric unit), with an estimated solvent content of 46%. The high-resolution structure of the pyruvate-bound form of C. botulinum DHDPS will provide insight into the function and stability of this essential bacterial enzyme.

The purification, crystallization and preliminary X-­ray diffraction analysis of dihydrodipicolinate synthase from Clostridium botulinum

In recent years, dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS; EC 4.2.1.52) has received considerable attention from both mechanistic and structural viewpoints. This enzyme, which is part of the diaminopimelate pathway leading to lysine, couples (S)-aspartate-beta-semialdehyde with pyruvate via a Schiff base to a conserved active-site lysine. In this paper, the expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of DHDPS from Clostridium botulinum, an important bacterial pathogen, are presented. The enzyme was crystallized in a number of forms, predominantly using PEG precipitants, with the best crystal diffracting to beyond 1.9 A resolution and displaying P4(2)2(1)2 symmetry. The unit-cell parameters were a = b = 92.9, c = 60.4 A. The crystal volume per protein weight (V(M)) was 2.07 A(3) Da(-1), with an estimated solvent content of 41%. The structure of the enzyme will help guide the design of novel therapeutics against the C. botulinum pathogen.

Identification of the bona fide DHDPS from a common plant pathogen.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a Gram‐negative soil‐borne bacterium that causes Crown Gall disease in many economically important crops. The absence of a suitable chemical treatment means there is a need to discover new anti‐Crown Gall agents and also characterize bona fide drug targets. One such target is dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS), a homo‐tetrameric enzyme that catalyzes the committed step in the metabolic pathway yielding meso‐diaminopimelate and lysine. Interestingly, there are 10 putative DHDPS genes annotated in the A. tumefaciens genome, including three whose structures have recently been determined (PDB IDs: 3B4U, 2HMC, and 2R8W). However, we show using quantitative enzyme kinetic assays that nine of the 10 dapA gene products, including 3B4U, 2HMC, and 2R8W, lack DHDPS function in vitro. A sequence alignment showed that the product of the dapA7 gene contains all of the conserved residues known to be important for DHDPS catalysis and allostery. This gene was cloned and the recombinant product expressed and purified. Our studies show that the purified enzyme (i) possesses DHDPS enzyme activity, (ii) is allosterically inhibited by lysine, and (iii) adopts the canonical homo‐tetrameric structure in both solution and the crystal state. This study describes for the first time the structure, function and allostery of the bona fide DHDPS from A. tumefaciens, which offers insight into the rational design of pesticide agents for combating Crown Gall disease. Proteins 2014; 82:1869–1883.

Cloning, expression, purification and crystallization of dihydrodipicolinate synthase from the grapevine Vitis vinifera

Dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) catalyses the first committed step of the lysine-biosynthesis pathway in bacteria, plants and some fungi. This study describes the cloning, expression, purification and crystallization of DHDPS from the grapevine Vitis vinifera (Vv-DHDPS). Following in-drop cleavage of the hexahistidine tag, cocrystals of Vv-DHDPS with the substrate pyruvate were grown in 0.1 M Bis-Tris propane pH 8.2, 0.2 M sodium bromide, 20%(w/v) PEG 3350. X-ray diffraction data in space group P1 at a resolution of 2.2 Å are presented. Preliminary diffraction data analysis indicated the presence of eight molecules per asymmetric unit (V(M) = 2.55 Å(3) Da(-1), 52% solvent content). The pending crystal structure of Vv-DHDPS will provide insight into the molecular evolution in quaternary structure of DHDPS enzymes.

Cloning, expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of N-acetylneuraminate lyase from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

The enzyme N-acetylneuraminate lyase (EC 4.1.3.3) is involved in the metabolism of sialic acids. Specifically, the enzyme catalyzes the retro-aldol cleavage of N-acetylneuraminic acid to form N-acetyl-D-mannosamine and pyruvate. Sialic acids comprise a large family of nine-carbon amino sugars, all of which are derived from the parent compound N-acetylneuraminic acid. In recent years, N-acetylneuraminate lyase has received considerable attention from both mechanistic and structural viewpoints and has been recognized as a potential antimicrobial drug target. The N-acetylneuraminate lyase gene was cloned from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus genomic DNA, and recombinant protein was expressed and purified from Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The enzyme crystallized in a number of crystal forms, predominantly from PEG precipitants, with the best crystal diffracting to beyond 1.70 Å resolution in space group P2₁. Molecular replacement indicates the presence of eight monomers per asymmetric unit. Understanding the structural biology of N-acetylneuraminate lyase in pathogenic bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus, will provide insights for the development of future antimicrobials.