Sarah Currò

Characterization of major and trace minerals, fatty acid composition, and cholesterol content of Protected Designation of Origin cheeses

Cheese provides essential nutrients for human nutrition and health, such as minerals and fatty acids (FA). Its composition varies according to milk origin (e.g., species and breed), rearing conditions (e.g., feeding and management), and cheese-making technology (e.g., coagulation process, addition of salt, ripening period). In recent years, cheese production has increased worldwide. Italy is one of the main producers and exporters of cheese. This study aimed to describe mineral, FA, and cholesterol content of 133 samples from 18 commercial cheeses from 4 dairy species (buffalo, cow, goat, and sheep) and from 3 classes of moisture content (hard, <35% moisture; semi-hard, 35-45%; and soft, >45%). Mineral concentrations of cheese samples were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, and FA and cholesterol contents were determined by gas chromatography. Moisture and species had a significant effect on almost all traits: the highest levels of Na, Ca, and Fe were found in cheeses made from sheep milk; the greatest level of Cu was found in cow milk cheese, the lowest amount of K was found in buffalo milk cheese, and the lowest amount of Zn was found in goat cheeses. In all samples, Cr and Pb were not detected (below the level of detection). In general, total fat, protein, and minerals significantly increased when the moisture decreased. Buffalo and goat cheeses had the highest saturated FA content, and sheep cheeses showed the highest content of unsaturated and polyunsaturated FA, conjugated linoleic acid, and n-3 FA. Goat and sheep cheeses achieved higher proportions of minor FA than did cow and buffalo cheeses. Buffalo cheese exhibited the lowest cholesterol level. Our results confirm that cheese mineral content is mainly affected by the cheese-making process, whereas FA profile mainly reflects the FA composition of the source milk. This study allowed the characterization of mineral and FA composition and cholesterol content and revealed large variability among different commercial cheeses.

Development and validation of a near infrared spectrophotometric method to determine total antioxidant activity of milk

In the present study a spectrophotometric method for the determination of total antioxidant activity (TAA) based on ABTS assay was developed and validated on raw milk (RM), whole UHT milk (WUM), partially skimmed UHT milk (SUM), whole pasteurised milk (WM) and partially skimmed pasteurised milk (SM). The most suitable solvent for antioxidant extraction was 80% acetone. Regardless of the type of milk, the coefficient of determination from the linearity test was greater than 0.95. The limit of detection ranged from 0.74 to 6.07μmoll-1 Trolox equivalents. Repeatability, calculated as relative standard deviation of twenty measurements within a day, and reproducibility, calculated as relative standard deviation of sixty measurements across three days, ranged from 1.24 to 4.04% and from 2.18 to 3.52%, respectively. Preservative added to RM had negligible effects on the TAA of milk. The greatest TAA was measured for SM followed by SUM, RM, WM and WUM.

Short communication: Phenotypic characterization of total antioxidant activity of buffalo, goat, and sheep milk

Free radicals are reactive and unstable waste molecules produced by cells, responsible of damages and alteration on DNA, proteins, and fat. The daily intake of antioxidant compounds, acting against free radicals and their detrimental effects, is essential for human health. Milk contains several compounds with antioxidant activity, and the sum of their reducing potential blocking free radicals development is defined as total antioxidant activity (TAA). This novel trait has been described in literature both in individual and bulk cow milk, but there are no reports from other dairy species. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate phenotypic variation of TAA in individual samples of buffalo (n = 105), goat (n = 112), and sheep (n = 198) milk. Total antioxidant activity was measured through a reference spectrophotometric method, and expressed as millimoles per liter of Trolox equivalents (TE). The greatest TAA was observed in sheep milk, averaging 7.78 mmol/L of TE and showing also the broadest phenotypic variation expressed as coefficient of variation (13.98%). Significantly lower TAA values were observed for buffalo (7.35 mmol/L of TE) and goat (6.80 mmol/L of TE) milk, with coefficients of variation of 8.18 and 8.47%, respectively. Total antioxidant activity exhibited weak correlations with milk yield and chemical composition. Phenotypic values of TAA presented in this study will be used to assess the ability of mid-infrared spectroscopy to predict this new trait and thus to collect data at the population level.

Technical note: Feasibility of near infrared transmittance spectroscopy to predict cheese ripeness

The aim of the study was to evaluate the feasibility of near infrared (NIR) transmittance spectroscopy to predict cheese ripeness using the ratio of water-soluble nitrogen (WSN) to total nitrogen (TN) as an index of cheese maturity (WSN/TN). Fifty-two Protected Designation of Origin cow milk cheeses of 5 varieties (Asiago, Grana Padano, Montasio, Parmigiano Reggiano, and Piave) and different ripening times were available for laboratory and chemometric analyses. Reference measures of WSN and TN were matched with cheese spectral information obtained from ground samples by a NIR instrument that operated in transmittance mode for wavelengths from 850 to 1,050 nm. Prediction equations for WSN and TN were developed using (1) cross-validation on the whole data set and (2) external validation on a subset of the entire data. The WSN/TN was calculated as ratio of predicted WSN to predicted TN in cross-validation. The coefficients of determination for WSN and TN were >0.85 both in cross- and external validation. The high accuracy of the prediction equations for WSN and TN could facilitate implementation of NIR transmittance spectroscopy in the dairy industry to objectively, rapidly, and accurately monitor the ripeness of cheese through WSN/TN.

Technical note: At-line prediction of mineral composition of fresh cheeses using near-infrared technologies

Milk and dairy products are important sources of macro- and trace elements for human health. However, fresh cheeses usually have a lower mineral content than other cheeses, and this makes mineral prediction more difficult. Although mineral prediction in several food matrices using infrared spectroscopy has been reported in the literature, very little information is available for cheeses. The present study was aimed at developing near-infrared reflectance (NIR, 866-2,530 nm) and transmittance (NIT, 850-1,050 nm) spectroscopy models to predict the major mineral content of fresh cheeses. We analyzed samples of mozzarella (n = 130) and Stracchino (n = 118) using reference methods and NIR and NIT spectroscopy. We developed prediction models using partial least squares regression analysis, and subjected them to cross- and external validation. Average Na content was 0.15 and 0.22 g/100 g for mozzarella and Stracchino, respectively. The NIR and NIT spectroscopy performed similarly, with few exceptions. Nevertheless, none of the prediction models was accurate enough to replace the current reference analysis. The most accurate prediction model was for the Na content of mozzarella cheese using NIT spectroscopy (coefficient of determination of external validation = 0.75). We obtained the same accuracy of prediction for P in Stracchino cheese with both NIR and NIT spectroscopy. Our results confirmed that mineral content is difficult to predict using NIT and NIR spectroscopy.