Sarah E. Martiny

Distracted by the Unthought - Suppression and Reappraisal of Mind Wandering under Stereotype Threat

Previous research has found that subtle reminders of negative stereotypes about one’s group can lead individuals to underperform on stereotype-relevant tests (e.g., women in math, ethnic minorities on intelligence tests). This so called stereotype threat effect can contribute to systematic group differences in performance that can obscure the true abilities of certain social groups and thereby sustain social inequalities. In the present study, we examined processes underlying stereotype threat effects on women’s math performance, specifically focusing on the role of suppression of mind wandering (i.e., task-irrelevant thinking) in stereotype threat (ST) and no threat (NT) situations. Based on a process model of stereotype threat effects on performance, we hypothesized that women under stereotype threat spontaneously suppress mind wandering, and that this suppression impairs performance. An alternative regulation strategy that prevents suppression (i.e., reappraising task-irrelevant thoughts as normal) was predicted to prevent stereotype threat effects on performance. We manipulated stereotype threat (ST vs. NT) and cognitive regulation strategy (suppression, reappraisal, or no strategy) and measured women’s performance on a math and a concentration task (N = 113). We expected three groups to perform relatively more poorly: Those in ST with either no strategy or suppression and those in NT with a suppression strategy. We tested the performance of these groups against the remaining three groups hypothesized to perform relatively better: those in NT with no strategy or reappraisal and those in ST with reappraisal. The results showed the expected pattern for participants’ math performance, but not for concentration achievement. This pattern suggests that ineffective self-regulation by suppressing mind wandering can at least partly explain stereotype threat effects on performance, whereas a reappraisal strategy can prevent this impairment. We discuss implications for the understanding of processes underlying stereotype threat effects and the benefits of reappraising subjective experience under threat.

Towards a Clearer Understanding of Social Identity Theory’s Self-Esteem Hypothesis

Social identity theory proposes that the need for self-esteem motivates group members to protect and enhance the positivity of their group. In this chapter, we explain this self-esteem hypothesis in detail and discuss its caveats and limitations. We also discuss recent work that proposes a dynamic relation between collective self-esteem and group-related outcomes. Based on this discussion, we present a reformulated version of the self-esteem hypothesis that makes more specific predictions than the original. We also broaden the scope of the self-esteem hypothesis by taking into account identity management strategies other than intergroup discrimination. Hence, this chapter moves beyond the blunt question of whether self-esteem motivates intergroup discrimination and instead provides a more nuanced explanation of the various issues that need to be considered when investigating the relation between the need for self-esteem and group behaviour.

Shall I leave or shall we fight? Effects of threatened group-based self-esteem on identity management strategies

We examined the interplay of social identity threat and group-based self-esteem on the motivation to use two identity management strategies, namely social competition and individual mobility. Following social identity theory, we postulated that threatened high group-based self-esteem leads to an increased motivation to use competitive identity management strategies. Furthermore, following realistic conflict theory and the rejection–identification model, we hypothesized that threat might reduce the desire for individual mobility among group members low in group-based self-esteem. Results of Study 1 (N = 67), Study 2 (N = 109), and Study 3 (N = 101) supported these hypotheses. The results showed that threat leads to the motivation to show social competition for group members high in group-based self-esteem and that for group members low in group-based self-esteem threat decreases the motivation to leave the group. The results are discussed in relation to recent theories of intergroup relations.

Smiling on the Inside The Social Benefits of Suppressing Positive Emotions in Outperformance Situations

Although expressing positive emotions is typically socially rewarded, in the present work, we predicted that people suppress positive emotions and thereby experience social benefits when outperformed others are present. We tested our predictions in three experimental studies with high school students. In Studies 1 and 2, we manipulated the type of social situation (outperformance vs. non-outperformance) and assessed suppression of positive emotions. In both studies, individuals reported suppressing positive emotions more in outperformance situations than in non-outperformance situations. In Study 3, we manipulated the social situation (outperformance vs. non-outperformance) as well as the videotaped person’s expression of positive emotions (suppression vs. expression). The findings showed that when outperforming others, individuals were indeed evaluated more positively when they suppressed rather than expressed their positive emotions, and demonstrate the importance of the specific social situation with respect to the effects of suppression.

Emotionsregulation im Kontext von Stereotype Threat : Die Reduzierung der Effekte negativer Stereotype bei ethnischen Minderheiten

Viele der in Deutschland lebenden Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund haben Schwierigkeiten mit einer sogenannten „erfolgreichen Integration“ in die deutsche Gesellschaft. Dies zeigt sich nach Meinung zahlreicher Experten vor allem bei ihren Leistungen im deutschen Bildungssystem und auf dem deutschen Arbeitsmarkt. Das Institut fur Sozialforschung und Gesellschaftspolitik stellte in seinem Bericht „Integration in Deutschland – Erster Integrationsindikatorenbericht“ im Jahr 2009 fest, dass im Schuljahr 2006/2007 16 % der Schuler(innen) mit Migrationshintergrund die Schule ohne Abschluss verliesen, wahrend dies nur bei 6,5 % der deutschen Schuler(innen) ohne Migrationshintergrund der Fall war.

From conscious thought to automatic Action : A simulation account of action planning

We provide a theoretical framework and empirical evidence for how verbally planning an action creates direct perception-action links and behavioral automaticity. We argue that planning actions in an if (situation)–then (action) format induces sensorimotor simulations (i.e., activity patterns reenacting the event in the sensory and motor brain areas) of the anticipated situation and the intended action. Due to their temporal overlap, these activity patterns become linked. Whenever the previously simulated situation is encountered, the previously simulated action is partially reactivated through spreading activation and thus more likely to be executed. In 4 experiments (N = 363), we investigated the relation between specific if–then action plans worded to activate simulations of elbow flexion versus extension movements and actual elbow flexion versus extension movements in a subsequent, ostensibly unrelated categorization task. As expected, linking a critical stimulus to intended actions that implied elbow flexion movements (e.g., grabbing it for consumption) subsequently facilitated elbow flexion movements upon encountering the critical stimulus. However, linking a critical stimulus to actions that implied elbow extension movements (e.g., pointing at it) subsequently facilitated elbow extension movements upon encountering the critical stimulus. Thus, minor differences (i.e., exchanging the words “point at” with “grab”) in verbally formulated action plans (i.e., conscious thought) had systematic consequences on subsequent actions. The question of how conscious thought can induce stimulus-triggered action is illuminated by the provided theoretical framework and the respective empirical evidence, facilitating the understanding of behavioral automaticity and human agency.

Responses to success: Seeking pleasant experiences before a task is complete?

Although engaging in pleasant experiences following successful performance may be hedonically rewarding, in the present research we proposed that individuals might forego pleasant experiences when they have not yet completed a task. In Study 1 (N = 100), participants reported the extent to which they would like to engage in pleasant experiences in a hypothetical situation where their performance outcome on a task (successful vs. average) and task completion (task in progress vs. completed) were manipulated. In Study 2 (N = 115), participants were in a real situation in which they achieved either a successful or average performance outcome. Task completion was manipulated (task in progress vs. completed) and motivation to engage in a pleasant experience was assessed by a behavioral measure. Results of both studies provided support for our prediction by showing individuals to have a lower desire to engage in pleasant experiences following successful, but not average, performance when the task was in progress than when it was complete. These findings are discussed in light of the underlying mechanisms and consequences of the tendency to forego pleasant experiences.

Bridging Identities through Identity Change.

Press. Thoits, Peggy A. 1992. ‘‘Identity Structures and Psychological Well-being: Gender and Marital Status Comparisons.’’ Social Psychology Quarterly 55:236–56. Thoits, Peggy A. and Lauren K. Virshup. 1997. ‘‘Me’s and We’s: Forms and Functions of Social Identities.’’ Pp. 106–33 in Self and Identity: Fundamental Issues, edited by Richard D. Ashmore and Lee Jussim. New York: Oxford University Press. Turner, John C., Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Steve D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherall. 1987. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Selfcategorization Theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Stereotype threat-effects for Turkish-origin migrants in Germany: Taking stock of cumulative research evidence

Turkish-origin migrants on average show lower academic performance than Germans. This achievement gap cannot be fully explained by socio-economic differences between the groups. Negative competence...