Sarah Grogan

Body Image Focus Groups with Boys and Men

In this exploratory study, boys and men (aged eight, thirteen, and sixteen years, and young adults) gave accounts of body shape ideals, body esteem, exercise, and diet in a series of focus groups. Men and boys in all groups presented discourses where being lean and muscular was linked to being healthy and fit. Being fat was related to weakness of will and lack of control by all age groups, and discourses of blame were used to describe those who were overweight. Sixteen-year-olds described peer pressure to be slender and muscular, and two young men had experienced teasing about their body size. Adult men and teenagers explicitly linked having a well-toned, muscular body with feelings of confidence and power in social situations. Data are discussed in relation to recent suggestions that Western cultural attitudes to the male body are in a state of change and that men are becoming more concerned with body image.

Body Image and Health: Contemporary Perspectives

There has been a significant increase in research into body image in men, women and children in the last 20 years. This editorial reviews definitions of the concept of body image, and considers potential health consequences of lowered body satisfaction and increased body concern. The articles that form this Special Issue are contextualized within contemporary research literature around relevant themes. These include sociocultural influences, gender, effects of weight and appearance and perceptual factors. Implications of findings for health psychologists involved in designing health promotion interventions are discussed.

Validation of a questionnaire measuring patient satisfaction with general practitioner services

Background—In order that patient satisfaction may be assessed in a meaningful way, measures that are valid and reliable are required. This study was undertaken to assess the construct validity and internal reliability of the previously developed Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ). Method—A total of 1390 patients from five practices in the North of England, the Midlands, and Scotland completed the questionnaire. Responses were checked for construct validity (including confirmatory factor analysis to check the factor structure of the scale) and internal reliability. Results—Confirmatory factor analysis showed that items loaded on the appropriate factors in a five factor model (doctors, nurses, access, appointments, and facilities). Scores on the specific subscales showed highly significant positive correlations with general satisfaction subscale scores suggesting construct validity. Also, the prediction (derived from past research) that older people would be more satisfied with the service was borne out by the results (F (4, 1312) = 57.10; p<0.0001), providing further construct validation. The five specific subscales (doctors, nurses, access, appointments, and facilities), the general satisfaction subscale, and the questionnaire as a whole were found to have high internal reliability (Cronbachs α = 0.74–0.95). Conclusion—The results suggest that the PSQ is a valid and internally reliable tool for assessing patient satisfaction with general practitioner services. (Quality in Health Care 2000;9:210–215)

THE EFFECTS OF VIEWING SAME-GENDER PHOTOGRAPHIC MODELS ON BODY-ESTEEM

This study was designed to investigate the effects of viewing same-gender photographic models on women and mens body-esteem. Women and men completed body-esteem scales before and after viewing pictures of same-gender photographic models (experimental group) or landscapes (control group). Women scored significantly lower than men on the body-esteem scale [F(1, 90) = 58.5, p < .001]. Women [F(1, 90) = 8.70, p < .05] and men [F(1, 90) = 4.17, p < .05] in the experimental group showed a significant decrease in body-esteem after seeing the photographs and the controls showed no significant change [women F(1, 90) = 0.57; men F(1, 90) = 0.00]. Results suggest that upward comparisons are made by women and men when viewing attractive same-gender models.

Eating sweet snacks: gender differences in attitudes and behaviour.

This paper reports a study of gender differences in the components of the Theory of Reasoned Action in relation to eating sweet snacks, and the role of these components in predicting sweet-snacking in women and men. Totals of 65 women and 64 men completed questionnaires assessing attitudes and behaviours towards eating sweet snacks. Women were more ambivalent towards eating sweet snacks than men, perceiving eating sweet snacks to be significantly less healthy (t(127) = - 2.43, p < 0.02), and more pleasant (t(127) = 2.52, p < 0.01). There were no statistically significant gender differences in outcome beliefs x evaluations, subjective norms, normative belief x motivation to comply, or in behavioural intention, although some gender differences were found within components. Women scored significantly higher (t(127) = 5.54, p < 0.0005) on restraint items from the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, including those on snacking (t(127) = 5.04; p < 0.0005), but did not differ significantly from men on reported frequency of eating sweet snacks. There were gender differences in the predictive power of components of the Theory of Reasoned Action. Womens intentions to eat sweet snacks were predicted by perceived social pressure and attitudes towards sweet snacks. Mens intentions were only predicted significantly by attitudes. It is concluded that mens sweet-snacking is less influenced by social pressure than is womens.

Gender, sexuality, body image and eating behaviours.

One hundred and twenty one participants reported sexual orientation, body mass index, body shape concerns, eating motives and eating styles. Measures of body dissatisfaction were greater in heterosexual women and homosexual men (ps <.05), while heterosexual women had smaller (ps <.001) ideal body shapes. Eating weight control motive was lower in heterosexual men compared to women (ps <.05). Restrained eating was lower in heterosexual men compared to heterosexual women or homosexual men (ps <.001). The findings support the role of socially prescribed body shapes on body shape concerns, eating motivations, and eating styles in men and women and suggest impacts are greater for heterosexual women and homosexual men.

Exercise interventions as an adjunct therapy for psychosis: A critical review

PURPOSE To review the existing evidence examining effectiveness of exercise as an adjunct therapy for psychosis. METHOD A search of databases including Pub Med, Psych Info, Cochrane Library, Cinahl, Sports Discus and Web of Knowledge was conducted to identify studies investigating the psychological changes following exercise interventions in people with psychosis. Literature was subjected to a critical review to determine the effectiveness of exercise as a therapy for psychosis. RESULTS A total of ten studies met the inclusion criteria: four quantitative, two qualitative and four using a mixed method design. Exercise interventions were supervised and generally lasted between 10 and 12 weeks. Study samples were small, even in the quantitative studies, meaning that statistical analysis was not always possible. Study design and outcome measures varied across all studies. Generally the research findings demonstrated a positive trend towards improved mental health for those participants utilising exercise. CONCLUSION The findings suggest the presence of a positive effect of exercise on mental health in people with psychosis, yet there is a need for greater consistency within the research to determine the size of effects and the most successful type of intervention. As exercise is increasingly used in the mental health service, more research is needed to provide a more comprehensive evidence-based practice.

Femininity and Muscularity: Accounts of Seven Women Body Builders

In this study, we interviewed an opportunity sample of seven women body builders, who all compete (or have competed in the past) in Physique-level body building competitions. They were asked about training details, and motivations for body building including social pressures to become more muscular (and not to become more muscular). Women’s accounts were complex and in some cases apparently contradictory, for while emphasising freedom to choose to be muscular within a cultural context where slimness is the norm, they stressed the importance of aspects of traditional femininity. Women’s accounts are discussed in relation to Western cultural pressure on women to be slender. It is argued that these women had shifted their body-shape ideal to a more muscular figure, and their primary social reference group to those within the body building community. Women experienced pressures from within the body building community defining the acceptable size and appearance of their bodies. They were engaged in a ‘balancin...

Growing up in the culture of slenderness: Girls' experiences of body dissatisfaction

Abstract This paper reports two group-interviews of young women aged 8 and 13 years. These young women were dissatisfied with their bodies and described ideal figures that matched the slim adult ideal. The younger girls were not dieting but were involved in helping their parents to diet. Adolescents had avoided “fattening” foods and would be concerned if they put on half a stone in weight. Eating (particularly sweet food) was used as a means of comfort and to relieve boredom by young women in both age groups. Results are similar to those of Nickie Charles and Marion Kerr (1986) who interviewed adult women. It is concluded that children as young as 8 years give accounts of body dissatisfaction that are similar to those of adult women, and that suggest acceptance of the slim adult ideal. Implications are discussed in relation to cultural influences on young women that encourage objectification and criticism of the body.

Appearance-based interventions to reduce ultraviolet exposure and/or increase sun protection intentions and behaviours: A systematic review and meta-analyses

OBJECTIVES A systematic review and meta-analyses were conducted to identify and review research examining the impact of appearance-based interventions on sun protection intentions and/or ultraviolet (UV) exposure behaviour. METHODS A search of 16 databases including PsycARTICLES, Cochrane Library and Web of Knowledge was conducted to identify studies examining the impact of appearance-based interventions on reducing UV exposure and/or increasing sun protection intentions and behaviours. A total of 21 articles met the inclusion criteria, and these studies were subjected to a systematic review and meta-analyses to determine the effectiveness of the interventions. RESULTS Interventions used a variety of techniques including UV technology and photoaging information. Study design and outcome measures varied. The research indicated that appearance-based interventions have a positive effect on UV exposure and sun protection intentions and behaviour. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that interventions based on the appearance-damaging effects of UV exposure, and the positive effects of sun protection, may have a role in health promotion. It is concluded that there is a need for further research incorporating a wider range of participants, and using qualitative and mixed methods designs. STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTION What is already known on the subject? Recreational exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, are the primary causes of all melanomas, leading to skin cancer. A previous systematic review (Dodd & Forshaw, ) looking at the efficacy of appearance-focussed interventions in skin cancer prevention, suggested that there were significant effects for UV protection behaviour after such interventions. What does this study add? An up-to-date systematic review of studies that has carried out appearance-based interventions to reduce UV exposure and/or increase sun protection intentions and behaviours. A meta-analysis of data providing statistical evidence indicating that appearance-based interventions have a positive effect on UV exposure and sun protection intentions and behaviour.