Sarah L. Hall

Forest restoration following surface mining disturbance: challenges and solutions

Many forested landscapes around the world are severely altered during mining for their rich mineral and energy reserves. Herein we provide an overview of the challenges inherent in efforts to restore mined landscapes to functioning forest ecosystems and present a synthesis of recent progress using examples from North America, Europe and Australia. We end with recommendations for further elaboration of the Forestry Reclamation Approach emphasizing: (1) Landform reconstruction modelled on natural systems and creation of topographic heterogeneity at a variety of scales; (2) Use and placement of overburden, capping materials and organic amendments to facilitate soil development processes and create a suitable rooting medium for trees; (3) Alignment of landform, topography, overburden, soil and tree species to create a diversity of target ecosystem types; (4) Combining optimization of stock type and planting techniques with early planting of a diversity of tree species; (5) Encouraging natural regeneration as much as possible; (6) Utilizing direct placement of forest floor material combined with seeding of native species to rapidly re-establish native forest understory vegetation; (7) Selective on-going management to encourage development along the desired successional trajectory. Successful restoration of forest ecosystems after severe mining disturbance will be facilitated by a regulatory framework that acknowledges and accepts variation in objectives and outcomes.

FOREST ESTABLISHMENT AND WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AS INFLUENCED BY SPOIL TYPE ON A LOOSE- GRADED SURFACE MINE IN EASTERN KENTUCKY

Six research plots were established on a surface mine for the purpose of evaluating the forest productivity potential and hydrological and water quality characteristics of three different loose-graded spoil types. The three spoil types were: (1) predominately brown, weathered sandstone (BROWN); (2) predominately gray, un-weathered sandstone (GRAY); and (3) mixed weathered and un-weathered sandstones and shale material (MIXED). The average area of the six plots was approximately 3,658 m 2 . The physical and chemical soil characteristics that gave the BROWN spoil type a predictably higher productivity potential and natural regeneration than the GRAY and MIXED spoil were its finer soil texture, higher CEC and P concentration, and a pH that was more suitable for native hardwood trees. Four species of tree seedlings were planted into the spoils. Growth and survival of the planted trees were evaluated for three years. As an indicator of natural succession potential, percentage ground cover of volunteer vegetation on the three spoil types was also evaluated. By the third year (2007) after planting, the BROWN spoil type had a significantly higher average tree volume index than the MIXED spoil and MIXED was significantly higher than GRAY. Ground cover from natural regeneration was found to be 66.4% on the BROWN spoil (61 different species), 5.8% on the MIXED spoil (35 different species), and less than 2.0% on the GRAY spoil (12 different species). Results showed that the loose-graded spoil in this experiment was characterized by low discharge volumes, small peak discharges, and long durations of discharge and had hydrologic characteristics of a forested watershed, even at this early stage of development. Generally, concentrations of Ca, Mg, and SO4 2- decreased over time in GRAY and MIXED and increased in BROWN. The pH of the water discharge from all three spoil types has increased from about 7.5 to 8.5. Although the average electrical conductivity (EC) in water discharged from the BROWN spoil remained relatively level during the study period, the GRAY and MIXED appears to be on a downward trajectory from about 1500 µS cm -1 to about 500 µS cm -1 . The latter value of EC has been reported as the apparent threshold at which the benthic invertebrate community returns to drastically disturbed headwater streams of eastern Kentucky and adjacent coal-producing Appalachian states.

Does fungal endophyte infection improve tall fescue's growth response to fire and water limitation?

Invasive species may owe some of their success in competing and co-existing with native species to microbial symbioses they are capable of forming. Tall fescue is a cool-season, non-native, invasive grass capable of co-existing with native warm-season grasses in North American grasslands that frequently experience fire, drought, and cold winters, conditions to which the native species should be better-adapted than tall fescue. We hypothesized that tall fescue’s ability to form a symbiosis with Neotyphodium coenophialum, an aboveground fungal endophyte, may enhance its environmental stress tolerance and persistence in these environments. We used a greenhouse experiment to examine the effects of endophyte infection (E+ vs. E−), prescribed fire (1 burn vs. 2 burn vs. unburned control), and watering regime (dry vs. wet) on tall fescue growth. We assessed treatment effects for growth rates and the following response variables: total tiller length, number of tillers recruited during the experiment, number of reproductive tillers, tiller biomass, root biomass, and total biomass. Water regime significantly affected all response variables, with less growth and lower growth rates observed under the dry water regime compared to the wet. The burn treatments significantly affected total tiller length, number of reproductive tillers, total tiller biomass, and total biomass, but treatment differences were not consistent across parameters. Overall, fire seemed to enhance growth. Endophyte status significantly affected total tiller length and tiller biomass, but the effect was opposite what we predicted (E−>E+). The results from our experiment indicated that tall fescue was relatively tolerant of fire, even when combined with dry conditions, and that the fungal endophyte symbiosis was not important in governing this ecological ability. The persistence of tall fescue in native grassland ecosystems may be linked to other endophyte-conferred abilities not measured here (e.g., herbivory release) or may not be related to this plant-microbial symbiosis.

New Host Plant Records for Selected Cryptocephaline Leaf Beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Kentucky

ABSTRACT Host plant data is provided for 23 species of cryptocephaline leaf beetles in Kentucky. The degree of beetle - plant association is quantified from field observations to laboratory feeding, mating and oviposition. New beetle - plant associations are reported at the following levels: 16 at the plant species level, eight at the plant genus level, and six at the plant family level. The most cryptocephaline species - plant family associations were with Fabaceae, Salicaceae, Anacardiaceae, Clusiaceae, and Fagaceae.

Pachybrachis nigricornis carbonarius Haldeman (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): Abundance, Distribution, and Host Plant Associations with Legumes (Fabales: Fabaceae) in Kentucky

Abstract Pachybrachis Chevrolat (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is a very large and complex genus of small leaf beetles with >150 species in the United States. Pachybrachis nigricornis carbonarius Haldeman is an entirely (or nearly entirely) black subspecies that is relatively common in Kentucky. Abundance and distribution records for 288 specimens collected in Kentucky are presented. Adults were found feeding on two species of legumes (Fabales: Fabaceae: Papilionoideae) over 230 km apart in Kentucky: on Desmodium paniculatum L. DC in Henry County and on Lespedeza virginica (L.) Britton in Logan County. No-choice feeding trials using female beetles and six species of legumes revealed significant leaf disk consumption after 50 hrs on all plant species. Females with narrow lateral yellow markings on the elytra were significantly larger in body size than all-black females and consumed more leaf area. The yellow-margined females appear to represent a transitional form between two previously recognized subspecies, suggesting that the current subspecies taxonomy for P. nigricornis (Say) needs re-evaluation.

Leaf Beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Biodiversity within Isolated Remnant Grasslands in Kentucky State Nature Preserves

Abstract Leaf beetle collection data from five Kentucky State Nature Preserves are summarized over a four-year period (2005 to 2008) encompassing a total of 57 collection events. Our primary objective was to survey leaf beetle populations found within the five preserves. We also wanted to assess impacts of prescribed fire management within these habitats on leaf beetles. We used means ANOVA procedures, species richness estimators, NMS ordinations, and contingency tables analyses. There were clear differences between the five preserves, with Raymond Athey State Nature Preserve (Logan Co.) being the most diverse (87 species) and having the greatest number of rare species (30). Ordination analyses revealed very minimal impacts of prescribed burns on leaf beetle composition in the four preserves where it is used as a management practice. Overall, leaf beetle composition appeared linked with Nature Preserves sampling/management units across years, overriding any year to year differences due to weather or other influences. The only significant year to year difference within a preserve occurred at Blue Licks State Park Nature Preserve, which had a lower number of beetles in 2007, possibly due to drought that summer. In total, we found 143 species, with 9 species unique to only one preserve (four of the five preserves contained unique species). These results demonstrate the importance of protected areas such as state nature preserves as refugia not only for known threatened or endangered plants and animals, but also for associated biota in little-studied groups, such as leaf beetles.

A quantitative method for assigning abundance classifications to leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Kentucky.

ABSTRACT: Little is known about the distribution and relative abundance of leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) within the United States. However, recent extensive collecting efforts within Kentucky, as well as the compilation and digitization of label data from seven museum collections, have resulted in distribution data for 11,079 beetles collected between 1884 and 2007. We used an integrated approach to assign abundance classifications of rare, local, infrequent, frequent, and abundant to the 253 known leaf beetle species recorded, incorporating both specimen data and our knowledge of the dataset. We initially selected a recently collected subset of 149 species, which were assigned preliminary subjective classifications. Possible index calculations were applied to all 253 species, and the calculation whose order was most aligned with the subjective classifications was chosen. Cutoffs between categories (e.g., abundant to frequent) were identified using subjective classifications as well as natural breaks in data or index values. Final classifications resulted in 132 rare, 38 local, 44 infrequent, 20 frequent, and 19 abundant species. These categories were 81.9% consistent with those given an initial subjective classification. In order to assess the ability of our abundance classifications to differentiate habitat types and quality, we used contingency analysis to compare leaf beetle species composition from two habitats (a native grassland nature preserve and a research farm). Species composition between these two habitats was significantly different (Pearsons &khgr;2=11.4, P = 0.023). Our results indicate that quantitative data can be used to establish consistent abundance classifications, which can then be used to compare species composition of different habitats or communities.

TREE GROWTH AND NATURAL REGENERATION ON THREE LOOSE- GRADED SURFACE MINE SPOIL TYPES IN KENTUCKY: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS 1

Reforestation research on mined lands has shown that loosely graded topsoil, weathered sandstone and/or other non-toxic topsoil substitutes are suitable growing media for establishing native forests in Appalachia. Reclamation practitioners however, have expressed confusion as to what constitutes the best available material other than topsoil. Six research plots were established on a surface mine for the purpose of evaluating the influence of three different loose- graded spoil types on tree performance. The three spoil types are: (1) predominately brown weathered sandstone; (2) predominately gray un-weathered sandstone; and (3) mixed weathered and un-weathered sandstones, and shale material (mine-run spoil). The total area of each plot is approximately 4,050 square meters (one acre). Four species of tree seedlings were planted into the spoils. Growth and survival of the planted trees were evaluated for two years. As an indicator of natural succession potential, percent ground cover of volunteer vegetation on the three spoil types was also evaluated. Preliminary observations indicated that by the second year (2006) after planting, the gray plots had an overall higher average survival (96%) than the mixed (84.5%) and brown plots (83%). The brown sandstone plots however, showed significantly more growth in height and diameter than the gray and mixed plots. Ground cover from natural regeneration was found to be 42.3 percent on the brown plots (40 different species), 2.6 percent on the mixed plots (21 different species), and less than 1 percent on the gray plots (6 different species).