Sarmad Said

Environmental Exposures, Socioeconomics, Disparities, and the Kidneys

Kidney disease disproportionately affects racial and ethnic minority populations, the poor, and the socially disadvantaged. The excess risk of kidney disease among minority and disadvantaged populations can only be partially explained by an excess of diabetes, hypertension, and poor access to preventive care. Disparities in the environmental exposure to nephrotoxicants have been documented in minority and disadvantaged populations and may explain some of the excess risk of kidney disease. High-level environmental and occupational exposure to lead, cadmium, and mercury are known to cause specific nephropathies. However, there is growing evidence that low-level exposures to heavy metals may contribute to the development of CKD and its progression. In this article, we summarize the excess risk of environmental exposures among minority and disadvantaged populations. We also review the epidemiologic and clinical data linking low-level environmental exposure to lead, cadmium, and mercury to CKD and its progression. Finally, we briefly describe Mesoamerican nephropathy, an epidemic of CKD affecting young men in Central America, which may have occupational and environmental exposures contributing to its development.

Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis, an uncommon presentation of a common cancer: Case report and discussion

Patient: Female, 59 Final Diagnosis: Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis Symptoms: Seizure • memory changes • decreased concentration Medication: Chemotherapy Clinical Procedure: Cerebral images Specialty: Hematology • Oncology Objective: Challenging differential diagnosis Background: Paraneoplastic neurological disorders (PND) are defined as remote effects on the nervous system that are not caused directly by the tumor, its metastases, or metabolic disruptions. This syndrome occurs in less than 1 per 10,000 patients diagnosed with a malignancy. Many antibodies are found in the central nervous system in PND, the most well known are Anti-Hu, Tr, CV2 Ta, Yo, Ri and amphiphysin. Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis occurs due to involvement of the limbic system secondary to an autoimmune response to neurons of the brain provoked by the antibodies. Patients, thus, present with seizures, changes in mood, memory, and personality. Case Report: Fifty-nine years-old female patient presented with seizures, decreased concentration and memory changes. Laboratory workup was remarkable for hyponatremia. Further workup included brain computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which suggested a diagnosis of encephalitis for limbic encephalitis. Anti-Hu, anti-Ma and NMDA-receptor antibodies were requested of which Anti Hu antibodies were positive. Transbronchial biopsy was obtained which confirmed the diagnosis of small cell lung cancer. Conclusions: A very high index of suspicion should thus be present when patients present with paraneoplastic abnormalities. It must be emphasized that limbic encephalitis (LE) occurs at an early stage of the disease development and therefore the detection of paraneoplastic LE can lead to a quicker identification of the underlying malignancy and a better outcome.

A Complicated Case of an Immunocompetent Patient with Disseminated Nocardiosis

Nocardia species are aerobic, gram positive filamentous branching bacteria that have the potential to cause localized or disseminated infection. Nocardiosis is a rare disease that usually affects immunocompromised patients and presents as either pulmonary, cutaneous or disseminated nocardiosis. Forty-two year-old hispanic male presented to our care with bilateral lower extremity weakness, frontal headache, subjective fever, nausea, and vomiting. Brain computed tomography (CT) revealed multiple hyperdense lesions with vasogenic edema in the frontal, parietal and left temporal lobes. Chest CT demonstrated bilateral cavitary nodules in the lung and right hilar lymphadenopathy. Brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed multiple bilateral supratentorial and infratentorial rim enhancing lesions involving the subcortical gray-white matter interface with vasogenic edema. Patient was started on empiric therapy for unknown infectious etiology with no response. He eventually expired and autopsy findings revealed a right hilar lung abscess and multiple brain abscesses. Microscopic and culture findings from tissue sample during autopsy revealed nocardia wallacei species with multidrug resistance. The cause of death was stated as systemic nocadiosis (nocardia pneumonitis and encephalitis). The presence of simultaneous lung and brain abscesses is a reliable indication of an underlying Nocardia infection. An increased awareness of the various presentations of nocardiosis and a high index of clinical suspicion can help in a rapid diagnosis and improve survival in an otherwise fatal disease. This case highlights the importance of obtaining a tissue biopsy for definitive diagnosis on the initial presentation when an infectious process is considered in the differential diagnosis and early treatment can be initiated.

A Review of Sodium Glucose Co-transporter 2 Inhibitors Canagliflozin, Dapagliflozin and Empagliflozin.

Sodium glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a new class of anti-diabetic medications. Canagliflozin was the first drug approved in this group in 2013 and subsequently dapagliflozin was approved in January 2014 and empagliflozin was approved in August 2014. Preclinical studies have demonstrated safety, tolerability, and efficacy in terms of glycemic control and HbA1c level in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients in comparison to other anti-diabetic drugs. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently released a warning that some of the patients who used SGLT2 inhibitors developed diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Empagliflozin has showed safety in type 2 diabetics with renal impairment. Each of these medications can be used as a single treatment or in combination with other anti-diabetic medications.

West Nile virus encephalitis induced opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome

West Nile virus (WNV) is an arthropod borne neurotropic single stranded RNA flavivirus with <1% developing presenting with neurological disease. Immunocompromised and elderly patients are more prone to developing WNV meningitis or encephalitis. Definitive diagnosis of WNV meningoencephalitis is a combination of clinical suspicion and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) serology. Forty-eight year old Caucasian female presented with a sudden onset of altered mental status after being found unresponsive. She was confused with intermittent bouts of alertness/lethargy and unintelligible responses to questioning. Her medical problems included endometrial cancer that was in remission after undergoing a total abdominal hysterectomy with bilateral salpingectomy and postoperative chemotherapy with paclitaxel and carboplatin. Pertinent physical examination revealed muscle strength that was significantly decreased, nuchal rigidity and +2 pitting edema of both lower extremities. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the brain were negative for any intracranial pathology. CSF analysis was consistent with aseptic meningitis with all CSF serology being negative except for positive WNV antibody. A few days after being admitted she developed involuntary random movements of her eyes and generalized jerking movements (myoclonus). This was determined to be opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome (OMS) induced by the WNV meningoencephalitis. She then received five consecutive days of plasmapheresis with a significant improvement in her neurological status. Opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome (OMS) is a rare neurological disorder associated with chaotic multidirectional eye movements, myoclonus and less frequently cerebellar ataxia. OMS affects as few as 1 in 10,000,000 people per year. The pathogenesis is not fully understood with the majority of cases of opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome being idiopathic. According to current medical literature there have only been two previous case reports of opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome associated with WNV encephalitis.

Rapid or normal gastric emptying as new supportive criteria for diagnosing cyclic vomiting syndrome in adults.

Background Cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS) in adults is a disorder characterized by recurrent and stereotypic episodes of severe nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain separated by symptom-free intervals. Our goal was to investigate gastric emptying (GE) in CVS patients. Material/Methods This was a retrospective study of 30 adult patients who met Rome III diagnostic criteria for CVS. Rapid GE was defined using two different predefined criteria as either <50% isotope retention or <65% isotope retention at 1st hour and/or <20% at 2nd hour. Results Of the 30 patients (25 had 4-hr GE) diagnosed with CVS, 22 were females and 8 males with a mean age of 39 years. Overall, 20 (80%) of the 25 CVS patients met the predefined criteria of <50% retention for rapid GE in the first hour. Fifteen (60%) met the 2-hour criteria for rapid emptying of <20% retention. Five (16.6%) patients of the 25 had a normal GE with a mean retention at the first hour of 65% (52–78%). Nine (36%) also met another predefined criteria of <35% retention for rapid GE in the first hour. Sixteen (64%) met criteria for normal GE. Conclusions (1) In adult CVS patients, GE is either rapid or normal, clearly distinguishing this entity from gastroparesis. (2) Cyclic vomiting syndrome is an important new etiology to explain the finding of rapid GE on a radionuclide test. (3) We suggest that rapid gastric emptying should be added as supportive criteria for diagnosing CVS in adults.

Hepatitis C- and HIV-induced porphyria cutanea tarda

Patient: Male, 47 Final Diagnosis: Porphyria cutanea tarda Symptoms: Chills • cough dry • thumb swelling Medication: — Clinical Procedure: — Specialty: Metabolic Disorders and Diabetics Objective: Challenging differential diagnosis Background: Porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT) is the most common type of the porphyria. It occurs due to the deficiency of enzyme uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase (UROD), which is the fifth enzyme in the biosynthesis of heme and catalyzes the conversion of uroporphyrinogen to coproporphyrinogen. The risk factors for PCT include hereditary hemochromatosis, hepatitis C infection, ethanol abuse, estrogen use, HIV, smoking, chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and hemodialysis. Case Report: A 47-year-old Hispanic man presented with right thumb swelling, redness, and pain for approximately 1 week. Past medical history included HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C infection, alcohol abuse, heroin abuse, and CMV retinitis. Skin examination revealed blistering and hypo/hyper pigmented lesions over the dorsal aspects of the hands and other sun-exposed areas. Serum porphyrins were discovered to be elevated. The quantitative urine porphyrins revealed elevation of uroporphyrins, heptacarboxyl-porphyrins, hexacarboxy-porphyrins, pentacarboxyl-porphyrins and coproporphyrin. Genetic mutation of UROD was not detected. Due to the classic cutaneous lesions, laboratory findings, and associated risk factors, we were able to confirm our suspicion of the sporadic (type 1) form of PCT. Conclusions: A strong correlation has been demonstrated between the sporadic (type 1) form of PCT and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in multiple studies. The mechanism through which HCV infection may cause or trigger PCT is unknown. PCT has been described for many years, but still eludes the differential diagnosis in a patient with cutaneous findings. The uniqueness of our case is the possibility that combined risk factors have an effect on PCT.

Alogliptin; A Review of a New Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitor for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP-4 inhibitors) are effective and safe oral incretin-based antihyperglycemic drugs. In preclinical studies, DPP-4 inhibitors have demonstrated cardiovascular benefits, independent of glycemic control, in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus. Since 2005, various DPP-4 inhibitors (sitagliptin, linagliptin and saxagliptin) have been clinically available in the United States. Since 2013, alogliptin is the 4(th) approved DPP-4 inhibitor available on the market. Studies have shown that alogliptinis non-inferior to comparator drugs among newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. Alogliptin can effectively be used as a single agent or as an add-on drug in combination with other glucose lowering drugs with favorable outcomes on glycemic control and HbA1C levels.

Esophageal perforation post pneumatic dilatation for achalasia managed by esophageal stenting

Patient: Female, 82 Final Diagnosis: Achalasia Symptoms: Nocturnal regurgtation • weight loss Medication: — Clinical Procedure: Esophageal stenting Specialty: Gastroenterology • Hepatology Objective: Unusual or unexpected effect of treatment Background: Pneumatic dilatation is one of the most effective methods for treating achalasia. Esophageal perforation is the most serious complication after pneumatic dilatation and has been reported to occur in the range of 1 to 4.3%. The appropriate management of esophageal perforation can range from conservative medical treatment to surgical intervention. Case Report: We report a case of an 82-year-old male who had an 8 month history of dysphagia for solid and liquids, a 10 lb weight loss and nocturnal regurgitation. The diagnosis of achalasia was established by endoscopic; barium and manometric criteria. He underwent a pneumatic dilation with a 30 mm Rigiflex balloon. A confined or limited esophageal perforation projecting into the mediastinum and located 1–2 cm above the diaphragm was confirmed by a gastrografin swallow study performed immediately after the procedure. There was some accompanying epigastric abdominal pain. Patient was treated later that day by placing a fully covered metallic esophageal stent in addition to antibiotics, proton pump inhibitor, and fasting. Patient was discharged home 3 days later able to eat liquid-soft foods. Follow up endoscopy 2 weeks later and a gastrografin swallow showed a completely healed perforation and the stent was removed. Symptomatically he has done well, with no dysphagia or heartburn at six and twelve months follow up. Conclusions: Early esophageal stenting for esophageal perforation after pneumatic dilation for achalasia is a treatment option which accelerates healing shortens recovery period, as well as decreasing hospital stay and costs.

Interrelationships with Metabolic Syndrome, Obesity and Cardiovascular Risk

Cardiovascular (CV) disease is the most common cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly in the presence of the metabolic syndrome (MetS). Classifications and treatment of the MetS have recently been redefined. While the majority of the cardiac components such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus (DM) and dyslipidemia (DLD) are objectively measurable elements, a few disparities among the definitions have to be considered that can variably modify diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Non-cardiac factors such as liver disease (including, but not limited to, alcoholic and non-alcoholic steatosis/hepatitis), renal disease, severe obesity, polycystic ovarian syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), may have independent or synergistic relationship with complementary cardiac MetS elements, and these additional risk factors may have an incremental adverse impact on CV outcome. The combination of all these factors potentiates the adverse significance on CV events. MetS not only increases morbidity and mortality but also has economic ramifications for the healthcare system. Prevention of CV disease includes primary and secondary aspects. Besides overall advances to provide optimal care for hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, early-targeted inventions to diagnose, treat and prevent OSA, and severe obesity, are needed.