Sauro Gelichi

Monitoring DNA Contamination in Handled vs. Directly Excavated Ancient Human Skeletal Remains

Bones, teeth and hair are often the only physical evidence of human or animal presence at an archaeological site; they are also the most widely used sources of samples for ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis. Unfortunately, the DNA extracted from ancient samples, already scarce and highly degraded, is widely susceptible to exogenous contaminations that can affect the reliability of aDNA studies. We evaluated the molecular effects of sample handling on five human skeletons freshly excavated from a cemetery dated between the 11 to the 14th century. We collected specimens from several skeletal areas (teeth, ribs, femurs and ulnas) from each individual burial. We then divided the samples into two different sets: one labeled as “virgin samples” (i.e. samples that were taken by archaeologists under contamination-controlled conditions and then immediately sent to the laboratory for genetic analyses), and the second called “lab samples”(i.e. samples that were handled without any particular precautions and subject to normal washing, handling and measuring procedures in the osteological lab). Our results show that genetic profiles from “lab samples” are incomplete or ambiguous in the different skeletal areas while a different outcome is observed in the “virgin samples” set. Generally, all specimens from different skeletal areas in the exception of teeth present incongruent results between “lab” and “virgin” samples. Therefore teeth are less prone to contamination than the other skeletal areas we analyzed and may be considered a material of choice for classical aDNA studies. In addition, we showed that bones can also be a good candidate for human aDNA analysis if they come directly from the excavation site and are accompanied by a clear taphonomic history.

Genealogical discontinuities among Etruscan, Medieval and contemporary Tuscans

The available mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data do not point to clear genetic relationships between current Tuscans and the Bronze-Age inhabitants of Tuscany, the Etruscans. To understand how and when such a genetic discontinuity may have arisen, we extracted and typed the mtDNAs of 27 medieval Tuscans from an initial sample of 61, spanning a period between the 10th and 15th century AD. We then tested by serial coalescent simulation various models describing the genealogical relationships among past and current inhabitants of Tuscany, the latter including three samples (from Murlo, Volterra, and Casentino) that were recently claimed to be of Etruscan descent. Etruscans and medieval Tuscans share three mitochondrial haplotypes but fall in distinct branches of the mitochondrial genealogy in the only model that proved compatible with the data. Under that model, contemporary people of Tuscany show clear genetic relationships with Medieval people, but not with the Etruscans, along the female lines. No evidence of excess mutation was found in the Etruscan DNAs by a Bayesian test, and so there is no reason to suspect that these results are biased by systematic contamination of the ancient sequences or laboratory artefacts. Extensive demographic changes before AD 1000 are thus the simplest explanation for the differences between the contemporary and the Bronze-Age mtDNAs of Tuscany. Accordingly, genealogical continuity between ancient and modern populations of the same area does not seem a safe general assumption, but rather a hypothesis that, when possible, should be tested using ancient DNA analysis.

Anfore e commerci nell'alto Adriatico tra VIII e IX secolo

Una nuova stagione di ricerche nell’Adriatico settentrionale ci consente di formulare nuove interpretazioni sulla circolazione delle merci durante i secoli VII, VIII e IX. In particolare si analizzano due contesti ambientali particolarmente significativi : la Laguna di Venezia ed il Delta del Po. Le anfore globulari qui presenti sembrano alludere ad un asse di collegamento con l’Adriatico meridionale e soprattutto con l’Egeo, mentre l’analisi contestuale dei depositi archeologici di ritrovamento mostra l’esistenza di strutture portuali e produttive (come a Comacchio e a Venezia) che restituiscono un orizzonte di veri e propria emporia in grado di generare nuovi processi di formazione urbana. Si tratta di una rete di punti nodali che mettono in comunicazione il Regnum e l’Italia Padana con il Mediterraneo, entro quadri economici tutt’altro che recessivi. In seguito, durante il IX secolo, Venezia prevarra e risultera l’unico interlocutore nei confronti dei Carolingi, facendosi sempre piu importante la sua funzione europea come fornitore dei mercati d’oltralpe.

THE MODENA WELL-HOARDS: RURAL DOMESTIC ARTEFACT ASSEMBLAGES IN LATE ANTIQUITY

This article discusses a number of late antique well-hoards found in the vicinity of Modena, which the author investigated in an earlier work published in 1994. Here, the coherence of this group, the nature of the fi nds from each hoard, the identity of their possible owners and their dating are re-considered. The author also questions his earlier supposition that the hoards were deposited as a result of generalised crisis, and an argument is presented that they refl ect the rural material culture of a more continuous transitional period. The Modena Well-Hoards: Their Location and History “L’anno 1839 procedendosi a tagliare le annose Quercie del Bosco di Sgolfo, nell’atterrarne una si avvenne il contadino in un pozzo pieno di rottami e terra”.1 It was with these words that the history of the artefacts known as the Modena Hoards began. The well in question, emptied in 1841, contained an unexpected archaeological haul: over 100 pieces of pottery, around 15 bronze vessels, some wooden items, lead weights, fragments of soapstone vessels, and other objects besides.2 From the name of the property on which it is located, this well came to be called ‘Sgolfo’. The fi rst expert to examine the material subsequent to its discovery, C. Pancaldi, believed that the hoard dated to the Etruscan period. Noting that the deposition of the hoard was intentional, he assumed that it held a ritual signifi cance, and linked the material to Bacchanalian rites that he assumed had occurred in the region. This idea was suggested by the ‘signati pots’, vessels that bore incised marks in their clay, which 1 Pancaldi (1841) 13–14. 2 Gelichi (1994a) 15. lavan, LAA5_f14_363-384.indd 363 12/18/2007 8:16:07 PM

I porti nel Mediterraneo tardo-antico. Alcune riflessioni

What happened to the Mediterranean harbour installations after the Imperial period? How can we interpret that qualitative and, at least in part, quantitative, collapse which appears from a superficial analysis of the archaeological remains? Does the problem of the lack of visibility of the evidence for late antique harbour contexts – caused by both natural and anthropic phenomenona effecting their disappearance whether due to their lesser monumentaly, hence less striking construction techniques – exist? Is it possible, in the end, that the knowledge of harbour engineering, developed after the Augustan period, due especially to the use of concrete with pozzolana, was lost or no longer used? Having provided an overview of the results of recent investigations that have focused on a number of Mediterranean harbours built in the Late Antique period and the Late Antique phases of harbour contexts founded in the imperial period, this article wishes to go beyond the traditional approach, founded on the concept of...

Costruire territori/costruire identità. Lagune a confronto

The short introductory text clarifies the methodological context of the monographic section.

Peregrinazioni in sconfinati deserti -Quale archeologia per i monasteri della laguna veneziana?

This article aims to analyze the medieval monasteries in the Venetian lagoon through material culture. The chronological phases will be described until the Modern Age, however the attention will be focused on early and high Middle Ages. Value and potentiality of written sources and archaeological data will be discussed case by case. The end of this paper will be dedicated to reflections about the present and the future of monastic studies of Venice and its landscape, considering archaeological and not archaeological information.

'Spolia' in contesto. Il riuso nell'episcopio medievale di Comacchio

The archaeological excavations carried out from 2006 until 2008 in Piazza XX Settembre in Comacchio allow us to comprehend relative phases of the medieval Episcopal complex. Investigated contexts can be dated from the 6th c. to the Modern Age. The archaeological data concerning the first Bishop’s church refer to the mid-eight century, proven by excavated cemetery area and porch. Original chapel was certainly placed under the modern Cathedral. Excavations brought to light several architectural elements and fragments of floor material, parts of the 8th and 9th century church, some reused in the later building. Different architectural elements of the first church (columns, capitals, marble slabs) were part of more ancient buildings, not necessarily of local origin. During the Carolingian period this early church was supplied with an altar screen. Between the end of the 10th and the beginning of the 12th century in front of the church new rectangular building was erected. By its shape, size and quality of use...

L'archeologia nella laguna veneziana e la nascita di una nuova città

L’obiettivo dell’articolo e quello di un esame critico degli approcci archeologici utilizzati per ricostruire la storia di Venezia e l’origine degli insediamenti nella laguna durante l’alto medioevo evo. L’articolo discute la storia dell’archeologia lagunare, i principali metodi e obiettivi che l’hanno contraddistinta e, infine, i risultati che ne sono conseguiti. Approcci differenti hanno caratterizzato nel tempo la ricerca, ma il punto debole rimane l’assenza di un coerente progetto scientifico. L’archeologia in laguna e stata completamente svincolata dal dibattito storico internazionale e si e adagiata su interpretazioni ‘tradizionali’ o letture banalizzanti, recuperando topos abusati (la ‘bizantinita’ o le origini selvagge). In questa maniera, l’archeologia non e stata in grado, finora, di proporsi come uno strumento autonomo e innovativo nel dibattito scientifico in corso. Questo lavoro, infine, intende mostrare quali possono essere alcune prospettive future per un’archeologia in laguna: la necessita di un progetto (o piu progetti) archeologicamente orientati; lo svincolamento da paradigmi interpretativi precostituiti; e, infine, il bisogno di contestualizzare la storia della laguna veneziana (e la nascita di Venezia) in un quadro territoriale piu ampio, cioe quello nord- adriatico.

Alla fine di una transizione? L’Italia settentrionale nel primo Alto Medioevo tra città, villaggi e economie

Resumen: Teniendo como base fuentes cronisticas y documentales elaboradas en el espacio galaico, se analiza el papel de los obispos como intermediarios principales en la relacion politica entre los monarcas ovetenses y el territorio sometido a su dominio. Su enraizamiento en las familias de la aristocracia, en ocasiones la jefatura de algunas de ellas, la riqueza, la cultura hicieron de los prelados de los siglos VIII al X cauces privilegiados de la doble corriente que, en una direccion, legitimaba y hacia posible el desempeno practico del poder y, en la otra, proporcionaba soporte teorico y material a la monarquia sacralizada. Palabras clave: Alta Edad Media, historia politica, historia medieval de Espana, Santiago de Compostela. Abstract: The paper conducts an analysis of the role played by bishops as key intermediaries in the political relationship between the kings of Oviedo and the territory under their dominance. The analysis builds upon sources from the Galician domain, including documents and chronicles. Prelates between the VIII and the X centuries had profound roots in aristocratic families, in occasions even becoming their visible heads. This preeminent position, as well as their substantial richness and culture, made them privileged channels of communication to, in one hand, legitimate and make the practical exercise of power possible and, in the other, offer theoretical and material uphold to the sacred monarchy. Keywords: Early Middle Ages, political history, spanish medieval history, Santiago de CompostelaResumen: En este trabajo se examina la importancia que tenian los documentos para los habitantes de los condados catalanes mil anos atras. Aunque la inmensa mayoria de la poblacion no sabia leer ni escribir, los que tenian propiedades procuraban guardar en sus casas los documentos (escrituras de compraventa, sobre todo) que justificaban sus derechos de propiedad. Habia, por tanto, un consenso social sobre el valor del documento, que reposaba en la tradicion legal (Liber Iudicum) y en la consideracion de la escritura como un recurso de la memoria: preservar el recuerdo del acto juridico. La profesion de escribano, en esta epoca generalmente ejercida por clerigos, gozaba de gran reputacion. Se escribia sobre pergamino y el texto, adaptado a la forma de este soporte, tenia generalmente una gran perfeccion formal. La ley goda establecia que solo el documento correctamente redactado (con fecha y signaturas) tenia validez, es decir, era un instrumentum . Por otra parte, el latin de estos documentos, por el contacto con la lengua hablada (catalan o, si se quiere, precatalan), se alejaba del latin clasico. Aunque la redaccion de escrituras era un imperativo juridico (un mandato del Liber Iudicum), lo que daba fuerza al documento era el consenso social. Solo cuando se ponia en duda la validez de un documento se acudia al juez que, despues de una investigacion, dictaminaba sobre su legalidad. Lo mas sorprendente es que, en una sociedad como aquella, formada mayoritariamente por campesinos iletrados, los campesinos no solo conocian el valor de los documentos, sino que podian almacenar en su memoria el contenido de muchos documentos, ya sea porque habian sido testigos de su redaccion ya sea porque habian participado en asambleas donde alguien los leia. Quiza la prueba mas solida del valor de los documentos se encuentra en los esfuerzos realizados para preservarlos, y el procedimiento seguido para repararlos o restaurarlos cuando se perdian o se destruian por algun accidente. Entre los miles de documentos de los siglos IX y X en Cataluna hay algunos escritos en sesiones judiciales ad reparandum scripturas peditas . Estas reparaciones se efectuaban siempre segun las normas del Liber Iudicum, tomadas a su vez de la tradicion legal romana. Era un sistema diferente del franco, llamado de la apennis . El procedimiento hispanogodo, en vigor en los condados en los siglos IX-XII, se basaba en la testatio amissorum instrumentorum : los perjudicados por la perdida de escrituras se presentaban ante un juez, declaraban la perdida y, a instancias del propio juez, presentaban testigos conocedores del contenido de las escrituras perdidas. Los testigos juraban conocer el contenido, declaraban este contenido con la maxima precision posible y juraban de nuevo, esta vez sobre la veracidad de lo declarado. El documento o acta que recogia todo el procedimiento seguido, con la firma de los testigos y del juez, sustituia al documento desaparecido y, de hecho, era su equivalente. Los ejemplos examinados de reparacion de escrituras muestran el alcance social de esta practica, e, indirectamente, el valor de la escritura y del derecho, la confianza de la sociedad en el sistema judicial, e incluso la difusion social del derecho de propiedad. Abstract: In this paper, we examine the importance that documents had for people who lived in the Catalan counties, one thousand years ago. Although the immense majority of people were not able to read and to write, owners used to keep in their houses charters (specially grants and selling charters) to justify their rights. Thus, there was a social agreement about the importance of the charter based on the legal tradition (Liber Iudicum) and on the consideration of writings as a resource of memory: to preserve the memory of the legally binding act. At this time, professional notaries, usually chosen among priests enjoyed a good reputation. The writings use to be on parchment and the text, adapted to the form of the parchment, usually had a large formal perfection. The Gothic law established that only the document properly written (with date and signatures) had validity, that is an instrumentum. On the other hand, the Latin of charters was different of classical Latin because of the contact with spoken language (Catalan or, if wanted, pre-Catalan). Although the writing of documents was a juridical imperative (a mandate of Liber Iudicum), the force of the charter was based on the social agreement. Only when a doubt about the validity of the document sprung off, it was possible to go to the judge who, after an investigation, sentenced about its legality. What is surprising in that society, formed essentially by illiterate peasants, is the fact that these peasants not only knew the importance of documents but also could store in their memory the content of a large number of charters, either because they acted as witnesses or they were present in assemblies where the documents were read. The strongest evidence of the importance of these documents is the effort accomplished to preserve them, and the methods used to repair or restore them when accidentally were lost or destroyed. Among thousands of documents of IX and X century in Catalonia we find some of them written in judicial meetings ad reparandum scripturas perditas . These repairs were always made according to norms of Liber Iudicum, which took them from the roman legal tradition. It was a different system to the Frankish one, known as apennis . The Hispanogothic process during the IX-XII century was fixed on the testatio amissorum instrumentorum : people damaged by the loss of documents appeared in court of justice, declared the loss and by request of the same judge, presented witnesses who known the contents of the lost documents. The witnesses swore to know the content of the document, they tried to declare with precision about the content and they swore again about the veracity of all declarations. The document or act depicted all the process with the signature of witnesses and the judge and it replaced the lost document, because it worked as its equivalent. The examined examples of repaired documents show the social importance of this process, and, indirectly, the value of writing and the law, the confidence of the society in the judicial system, and even the social diffusion of the law of property.Resumen: El articulo intenta analizar la transicion al Alto Medioevo en un area especifica, la del norte de Italia (que en gran parte se corresponde con los territorios del reino longobardo, durante los siglos VII al VIII), tratando de verificar en que formas y en que medida la arqueologia ha producido cambios significativos en los procesos historicos, a traves de los analisis de algunos componentes fundamentales, como el poblamiento y la economia. En lo que respecta al poblamiento, se hace un examen reflexionando criticamente sobre los planteamientos teoricos, con los cuales ha sido analizada la ciudad (del concepto mismo de ciudad y los tipos de ciudad documentados en nuestro Alto Medioevo) y las diferentes formas de poblamiento rural. Mientras que el debate sobre la ciudad ha experimentado un salto cualitativo gracias al numero y a la calidad de las investigaciones arqueologicas, los estudios sobre el poblamiento rural no han podido contar con una realidad analoga de investigaciones de campo. Asi pues, el debate sobre el nacimiento de la aldea y la realidad del asentamiento disperso, muy abundante en la Toscana, ha quedado bastante marginado en el norte de Italia, sin producir hasta el presente modelos validos. Otro aspecto que se ha analizado en este articulo, utilizando la documentacion arqueologica, tiene que ver con la economia. Desde este punto de vista, la arqueologia ha logrado resultados verdaderamente estimulantes en los ultimos anos, permitiendo revisar desde una optica diferente la naturaleza de la red comercial padana y sus relaciones con el Mediterraneo, entre el tardio siglo VII y el VIII. Este fenomeno ha sido puesto oportunamente en relacion con el nacimiento de los emporios altoadriaticos, entre los cuales destacan naturalmente Venecia (con sus asentamientos lacustres) y Comacchio. Palabras clave: Alto Medioevo, reino lombardo, poblamiento, aldea, ciudad, economia, red comercial. Abstract: The paper aims to analyse the transition to early middle ages in northern Italy (corresponding between the 7 th and 8 th centuries to the Lombard kingdom). It tries to verify how and how much Archaeology has produced significant changes on reading historical processes through analyzing some basic features, as are settlement and economy. Regarding the settlement, work was taken up reflecting critically on theoretical approaches by which the city (from the city concept itself to the different early medieval urban models) and the rural settlement have been studied. While current discussion on medieval town —although today lying on stand by— has experienced an outstanding improvement, due to both the quality and quantity of archaeological research, studies on rural settlement cannot unfortunately account on similar effort of field work. So, discussion carried out in Tuscany about «la naissance du village» and the maintenance of spread settlements has got no consequences in northern Italy, and subsequently an accepted model has not been designed. Otherwise, this paper analyzes the economy’s features, focusing on archaeological evidence. From this point of view, archaeology has obtained in recent years very exciting conclusions, allowing us to review under a new perspective the nature of the Padan trade net, as well as its rapports with the Mediterranean, between late 7th and 8th centuries. This phenomenon has been naturally set on rapport with the beginnings of the upper Adria commercial emporia, among which Venice and lacunars settlements and Comacchio significantly stands out. Keywords: Early Middle Ages, Lombard kingdom, settlement, village, town, economy, trade net.Resumen: Mediante el analisis de los 60 diplomas validos del periodo planteamos un estudio en tres niveles: los poderes condales, los territorios (alfoces) y las entidades de poblamiento (villas). Ello permite dar una vision general sobre las caracteristicas sociales y politicas de Castilla antes de la relativa unificacion bajo Fernan Gonzalez. Es caracterizada como una sociedad prefeudal con profundas transformaciones debido, en buena medida, a la accion de los poderes exteriores sobre las comunidades, generando propiedad, particularmente mediante monasterios, sernas y heredades. Palabras clave: alfoz, poblamiento, comunidad, monasterio, serna. Abstract: Analysing the 60 authentic charters of the period we pretend a three level study: the count power, the territories (alfoces) and the settlement entities (villas). This will allow us to obtain a global overview of social and political characteristics of Castile before the unification under count Fernan Gonzalez. We define it as a pre-feudal society with deep transformations, because of the action of external powers on local communities generating property, mainly through monasteries, sernas and heredades. Keywords: alfoz, settlement, community, monastery, Serna.