Scott J. Kenner

Estimating thawing depths and mean annual ground temperatures in the Khuvsgul region of Mongolia

Permafrost is an important component in the ecosystem and plays a key role in soil regime characteristics in high-altitude regions. Thawing depths and mean annual ground temperatures are the main parameters to conduct research on permafrost. Here we present the results of different modeling approaches for estimating thawing depths and mean annual ground temperatures in the Khuvsgul region of Mongolia. The aim of this study was to analyze the modeling approaches and determine what model best simulates the different characteristics of the soils. Moreover, this study investigates the factors that determine the best fit model approaches for certain conditions of the study area. For this study, the Stefan model was applied to estimate thawing depths and the TTOP and Kudryavtsev model approaches were applied for the estimations of mean annual ground temperatures. The estimations were performed at seven observational boreholes in the region. The evaluations show that model results are more sensitive to thermal and physical properties of the soil than the air temperatures for estimating thawing depths and mean annual ground temperatures.

ANALYSIS OF FECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA IN SPRING CREEK ABOVE SHERIDAN LAKE IN THE BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Spring Creek is a perennial stream that originates above Hill City in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Spring Creek, from the origin to the inlet of Sheridan Lake, has been listed on the 1998 303(d) list of impaired waterbodies for South Dakota for exceeding fecal coliform bacteria water quality criteria. The listed portion of the Spring Creek Watershed is approximately 126 square miles (327 square kilometers). The average annual precipitation in the Watershed ranges from 20 to 24 inches (51 to 61 centimeters) per year. Over 97 percent of the Watershed is ponderosa pine forest. A water quality monitoring program was completed from May 2002 through July 2003. Water quality data collected for this reach of Spring Creek indicate that the stream does not meet the water quality criterion for the beneficial use of immersion recreation. Immersion recreation has the most stringent water quality criteria for fecal coliform bacteria in this reach. For this section of Spring Creek from May 1 to September 30 of each year, the criterion requires that the geometric mean of five samples taken over 30 days is not to exceed 200 colony-forming units (cfu)/100 ml and that the daily maximum is not to exceed 400 cfu/100 ml. Water quality data have been collected since 1976 for this section of the creek. The Total Maximum Daily Load for the impaired reach was developed using a watershed approach with the BASINS and HSPF models. Several Best Management Practices (BMPs) were modeled to determine a combination that would bring fecal coliform concentrations down to acceptable levels. The BMPs included reducing the human pathogen sources, a litter control program, buffer zones and filter strips, and better animal waste management. Two possible combinations of BMPs were found that reduced the concentrations in the creek to acceptable levels. Monitoring of fecal coliform concentrations in the impaired reach of Spring Creek should be continued after BMPs are implemented.

Physical Habitat Assessment and Historical Water Quality Analysis on the White River, South Dakota

The White River was listed on South Dakotas 1998 303(d) list of impaired waterbodies for exceedances of water quality standards for total suspended solids (TSS) and fecal coliform bacteria. The White River flows out of northwest Nebraska into southwestern South Dakota and follows an easterly route until it discharges into the Missouri River. Shortly after it enters the State of South Dakota, the river flows through Badlands National Park, which is famous for its rugged, steep terrain with little to no vegetation on the loosely consolidated side slopes. Ten sites were established for assessment of physical habitat and biologic integrity following the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP). These sites ranged in location from Crawford, Nebraska, near the headwaters of the river to the mouth of the river near Oacoma, South Dakota. An Index of Biologic Integrity (IBI) was created for the benthic macroinvertebrates and periphyton samples. A multimetric approach was used for the development of the IBIs with seven metrics being used for the benthic IBI and eleven metrics used for the periphyton IBI. A large amount of historical gage data are available for the White River, dating as far back as 1928, at a station near the mouth of the river. The White River has long been a river of special interest due to the Missouri River Reservoirs and the impact on reservoir storage. A statistical analysis of the historic data set was performed to characterize the conditions in the Watershed and to develop a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) summary report. Downstream of the Badlands region, the median TSS concentration is 1,118 mg/1 with upper and lower quartiles of 154 mg/1 and 5,688 mg/1. At the same station, the fecal coliform median is 2,400 colony-forming units (cfu)/100 ml with upper and lower quartiles of 350 cfu/100 ml and 7,500 cfu/100 ml. Because of the large natural background of TSS in this system, the TSS standard of 158 mg/1 is not attainable. Best management practices (BMP) are expected to reduce the TSS loading by a minimal amount. BMPs for fecal coliforms can be implemented to reduce concentrations to the water quality standard of 2,000 cfu/100 ml. We anticipate BMPs for fecal coliform reduction, such as a grazing management system, off-site watering, and riparian vegetation stabilization, will also reduce the TSS loading slightly.

The Atmosphere as a Source of Water-Soluble Volatile Organic Compounds Found in Urban Streams

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are frequently detected in surface waters of the United States. To reduce their occurrence in urban streams, it is imperative to understand the sources of these pollutants. The atmosphere is a potential source of selected water-soluble VOCs in urban streams and was investigated in this study. Air and surface-water VOC data collected during 1996 to 2002 from 10 monitoring sites from the U.S. Geological Surveys National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program were examined. These sites were selected to evaluate the potential for direct transport of VOCs from the atmosphere to urban streams. Concurrent samples (air and surface water) were collected from eight sites, but two sites had available data that were compared based on the closest sampling dates. Analytical results of 87 VOCs were screened by evaluating the occurrence and concentrations in both air and surface water using defined categories, and equilibrium concentrations in surface water (C w s ) were calculated based on the measured air concentrations. Four VOCs (acetone, methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE), m - and p -xylene, and toluene) were in the category of detected in more than 20 percent of surface-water samples and in more than 10 percent of air samples, with at least 10 percent of C w s concentrations greater than the aqueous long-term method detection level (LTMDL). One VOC, benzene, was in the category of detected in more than 20 percent of surface-water samples and in more than 10 percent of air samples, with at least 2 percent of the C w s concentrations greater than one-half the aqueous LTMDL. Six VOCs (chloroform, methylene chloride, perchloroethene, p -isopropyltoluene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and trichloroethene) were in the category of detected in more than 20 percent of surface-water samples and in more than 10 percent of air samples, with less than 1 percent of C w s concentrations greater than one-half the aqueous LTMDL. Five VOCs were identified as having the atmosphere as a possible source of contamination to small urban streams: acetone, benzene, MTBE, m - and p -xylene, and toluene. Of these five VOCs, acetone, benzene, and MTBE were consistently in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Depending on the site and season, the atmosphere can serve as a probable dominant source for VOC contamination in urban streams.

OPERATIONAL MODEL OF THE BELLE FOURCHE IRRIGATION DISTRICT

The Belle Fourche River, located in west-central South Dakota and east-central Wyoming, is currently listed in the South Dakota 2004 Integrated Report for Surface Water Quality Assessment as impaired because of elevated total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations (Belle Fourche River Watershed Partnership, 2005). The goal of the Belle Fourche River Watershed Management and Project Implementation Plan (Segment II) is to reduce the TSS concentration by 55 percent within 10 years through the implementation of several best management practices (BMPs). The total maximum daily load (TMDL) report (Hoyer and Larson, 2004) completed for the Belle Fourche River Watershed lists the Belle Fourche Irrigation District (BFID) as a major contributor to the TSS load. The elevated TSS load is a function of the delivery and application efficiency in the BFID where 64 percent of the water released from the reservoir is delivered to the field, 32 percent is used by the crops, and the rest is lost to evaporation and nonused water discharged into adjacent waterways. This paper focuses on the use of an operational model linked with a hydraulic model to improve the operational efficiency of the Belle Fourche Irrigation District and to reduce the TSS load 37 percent (Belle Fourche River Watershed Partnership, 2005). The operational model is comprised of three main objectives. The first objective is to ensure the correct amount of water is delivered to the Vale Flume. The model will also eliminate the need for large surges of water to be released from the dam. Surges tend to increase the head at lateral gates and if the additional head is not accounted for, an unknown increase in water is discharged into the lateral. Finally, the operational model will provide operating procedures and rating curves for control check structures. This paper will discuss the three main objectives in detail.

Water Quality Management in Rivers and Lakes

ABSTRACT An approach for national water quality management is illustrated based on the 1972 Clean Water Act in the United States. Beneficial uses are assigned to each stream and lake. Water quality standards are developed to support these beneficial uses. A data collection program is used to make periodic evaluation of the quality of water bodies in each state. A bi-annual listing of all impaired water is required, with a schedule for investigations to determine causes of pollution and to develop plans to restore desired water quality. The approach is illustrated using recent water quality investigations of two rivers in the Great Plains Region of the United States.

Biologic Indicators to Assess Impairment and Correlation to Total Suspended Solids, Belle Fourche River, South Dakota

The Belle Fourche River has been identified by the 2002 South Dakota 303(d) Waterbody List as impaired due to total suspended solids (TSS). The river has been designated as a warm-water permanent fishery. Based on thi s designated beneficial use, the criteria states that the TSS should not exceed the 30 -day maximum of 90 mg/l or a daily maximum of 158 mg/l. A 3-year study was completed to determine and document sources of impairments to the Belle Fourche River Watershed (2.1 million acres) and to develop feasible recommendations for rehabilitation. The flow in the Belle Fourche River is heavily influenced by the Belle Fourche Irrigation District (BFID) project servicing approximately 51,000 acres. The primary cause of the elevated TSS concentrations is stream incising from alteration of the hydrologic regime due to nonused irrigation water discharging to the surrounding waterways. Biologic indicators can be used to indicate long -term quality of a water body, reflecting overall ecological integrity. Macroinvertebrate biological samples were collected at 16 sites to support the water quality sampling and analysis. A good reference site was not available for this watershed. Thus the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPAs) methodology documented in the Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Wadeable Streams and Rivers was applied with modifications to develop a measure of impairment. Nonparametric statistical analyses (KruskalWallis) were used to compare the sites and to determine the relative level of impairment. A robust regression equation was also developed relating TSS and seven biologic indicators.