Scott R. Ross

Factors of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory: Criterion-Related Validity and Relationship to the BIS/BAS and Five-Factor Models of Personality

Psychopathy is a personality disorder that includes interpersonal-affective and antisocial deviance features. The Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) contains two underlying factors (fearless dominance and impulsive antisociality) that may differentially tap these two sets of features. In a mixed-gender sample of undergraduates and prisoners, we found that PPI fearless dominance was related to low Behavioral Inhibition System activity, high Behavioral Activation System (BAS) activity, expert prototype psychopathy scores, and primary psychopathy. Impulsive antisociality was related to high BAS activity and all psychopathy measures. High Extraversion and Openness and low Neuroticism and Agreeableness predicted fearless dominance, whereas high Neuroticism and low Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted impulsive antisociality. Although low levels of Agreeableness predicted both PPI factors, their differential relations with other five-factor model traits highlight differences in the way psychopathy manifests itself. Consistent with movements toward assessing personality disorder using the five-factor model, the authors report regression-based equations for the clinical assessment of these psychopathy dimensions using the NEO Personality Inventory—Revised (NEO-PI-R).

Detecting Incomplete Effort on the MMPI-2: An Examination of the Fake-Bad Scale in Mild Head Injury

The current study is an investigation of the MMPI-2 Fake Bad Scale (FBS) in the detection of incomplete effort in mild head injury (MHI). Using ROC curve analysis, we found that a cutoff score of 21 had a sensitivity of 90% and specificity of 90%, providing an overall correct classificatory rate of 90%. In addition, traditional indices of faking bad on the MMPI-2, the F and F–K indices, fared relatively poorly by comparison and added no predictive power over the FBS. Finally, multivariate analyses revealed that although the FBS shares a number of items with Hs and Hy scales, the FBS carried the majority of variance in predicting incomplete effort in our MHI sample. Overall, these findings indicate that the FBS has high sensitivity and specificity in identifying incomplete effort in mild head injury.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Behavioral Inhibition and Activation Scales

Abstract John Gray [1987, In S.M. Stahl, S.D. Iversen & E.C. Goodman (Eds.) Cognitive neurochemistry (pp. 171–190). Oxford: Oxford University Press] specifies a three-factor model of motivation including a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS). Carver and White [(1994) J of Pers Soc Psychol , 67 , 319–333] recently developed the BIS/BAS scales in an effort to refine the measurement of these constructs in humans. We examined the latent structure of this measure in a sample of college undergraduates ( n =476). Using structural equation modeling, the current study found that a four-factor model best fit the data. When BAS subscales were examined, results suggested that these subscales should be considered as separate constructs rather than as a global measure of behavioral activation. These findings caution the use of the Carver and White scales in the measurement of behavioral activation and highlight the importance of treating BAS subscales as independent constructs.

A Personological Examination of Self- and Other-Forgiveness in the Five Factor Model

In a sample composed of 147 undergraduates (age range 18 to 55 years; M = 22), we conducted an examination of the convergent and discriminant validity of self- and other-forgiveness in the Five-factor model of personality (FFM). Using multiple measures of each construct, principal components analysis (PCA) supported a 2-component model of forgiveness. Findings for the PCA and external correlates with the FFM provided evidence for a largely orthogonal relationship between self- and other-forgiveness. Specifically, self-forgiveness was negatively related to Neuroticism and unrelated to Agreeableness, whereas other-forgiveness was unrelated to Neuroticism and positively related to Agreeableness. Overlap between the constructs was found in which both self- and other-forgiveness were negatively related to the hostility facet of Neuroticism and the order facet from Conscientiousness and positively related to the warmth and positive emotions facet scales from the Extraversion domain of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Overall, these findings suggest that self- and other-forgiveness, although seemingly similar, carry very different motivational underpinnings.

Competition and cooperation in the five-factor model: individual differences in achievement orientation.

Abstract The authors investigated the relationship between basic achievement orientations of competition and cooperation and the five-factor model of personality as measured by the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992). They examined 2 types of competition: hypercompetition (R. M. Ryckman, B. Thornton, & J. C. Butler, 1994) and personal development competition (R. M. Ryckman, M. Hammer, L. M. Kaczor, & J. A. Gold, 1996), as conceptualized by K. Horney (1937). In a sample of 251 young adults, 14% to 38% of the variance in achievement orientations was collectively predicted by NEO-PI-R domain scales. Of NEO-PI-R predictors, Agreeableness was most important in characterizing differences between various achievement orientations; Agreeableness was negatively related to hypercompetition, positively related to cooperation, and unrelated to personal development competition. Extraversion was positively related to both cooperation and personal development competition but was unrelated to hypercompetition. In contrast, Openness and Conscientiousness were least helpful in differentiating among achievement orientations. These findings support the useful application of the NEO-PI-R in achievement research and highlight competition and cooperation as interpersonally laden achievement orientations.

The imposter phenomenon, achievement dispositions, and the five factor model

Abstract This study investigated the imposter phenomenon (IP) in relation to common achievement dispositions and the Five Factor Model (FFM). A total of 129 college students were administered measures of achievement including the Harvey Imposter Phenomenon, Cooperation, Debilitating Anxiety, Hypercompetitive Attitude, Personal Development Competition, and Self-handicapping scales, in addition to the NEO-PI-R. IP scores were related to all achievement constructs, but were best predicted by Fear of Failure (+) and Self-handicapping (+). Consistent with previous findings [Chae, J. H., Piedmont R., Estadt, B., & Wicks, R. (1995). Personal evaluation of Clance’s impostor phenomenon scale in a Korean sample. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65(3), 468–485.] the IP was related to Neuroticism (+), Extraversion (−), and Conscientiousness (−). However, Neuroticism accounted for the vast majority of variance in the FFM predicting IP scores. In addition, a pattern of correlations was found for the IP and facet scales of the NEO-PI-R that is highly similar to those reported by Chae et al. Taken together, these findings expand our understanding of the IP in achievement and confirm earlier findings for the FFM.

Self-handicapping and the Five Factor Model of personality: mediation between Neuroticism and Conscientiousness

Abstract The current study is an investigation of the relationship between self-handicapping and the Five Factor Model as measured by the NEO-PI-R [Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO-PI-R Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources]. In keeping with previous findings for the construct of procrastination, we found that self-handicapping was positively related to Neuroticism and negatively related to Conscientiousness. Stepwise multiple regression indicated that the facets of Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, and Vulnerability contributed unique variance to self-handicapping. Additionally, the Conscientiousness facets of Competence, Dutifulness, and Self-Discipline were most strongly related to dispositional self-handicapping. Finally, analyses using partial correlation indicated that the construct of self-handicapping mediates the negative relationship between Neuroticism and Conscientiousness reported in previous studies.

Psychopathic attributes and achievement dispositions in a college sample

Abstract A poverty of studies have addressed the relationship between psychopathic attributes and dispositions contributing to individual differences in achievement motivation. The current investigation focused on the relationships among these constructs in a noninstitutionalized population. Multiple regression analyses indicated that hypercompetition (+), personal development competition (−), and self-handicapping (−) were the strongest predictors of primary psychopathy. In contrast, self-handicapping (+), goal engagement (−), and cooperation (−) significantly predicted secondary psychopathy. These findings extend the distinction between primary and secondary psychopathy to achievement dispositions and contribute to an understanding of these attributes as representing dimensions related to successful and unsuccessful achievement outcomes.

Maladaptive correlates of the failure to forgive self and others : Further evidence for a two-component model of forgiveness

In a sample composed of 162 young adults, we examined the generalizability of an orthogonal, 2-component model of forgiveness previously reported by Ross, Kendall, Matters, Rye, and Wrobel (2004). Furthermore, we examined the relationship of these two components with maladaptive personality characteristics as measured by the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP; Clark, 1993), with an emphasis on Five-factor model markers of personality. Using multiple measures of forgiveness, principal components analysis supported a 2-component model representing self-forgiveness and other forgiveness. Despite the independence of self-forgiveness and other forgiveness, zero order correlations with SNAP scales supported convergent more than discriminant validity. In contrast, hierarchical multiple regression analyses emphasized the discriminant validity of self-forgiveness and other forgiveness. Among indices of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness, Negative Temperament (+) was the sole predictor of self-forgiveness. In contrast, Positive Temperament (+), Aggression (−), and Histrionic PD (−) were most associated with other forgiveness. Overall, these findings support the validity of these factors and highlight the importance of self-forgiveness in clinical assessment.

The imposter phenomenon and maladaptive personality: type and trait characteristics

Abstract The current study examined the relationship between the imposter phenomenon as measured by the Harvey Imposter Phenomenon (HIP) scale and personality pathology as conceptualized by the DSM-III-R. We found that DSM-III-R personality disorder scales accounted for 30% of the variance in the imposter phenomenon (IP) and were best characterized by cluster C Avoidant and Dependent type characteristics. Further, trait and temperament scales of the Schedule of Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) accounted for 40% of the variance in IP. The top three trait and temperament predictors of IP were Detachment (+), Dependency (+), and Entitlement (−). In addition, Mistrust (+), Workaholism (+), and the Low Self-Esteem subscale of Self-Harm also contributed unique variance in predicting IP scores. These results provide additional evidence for the construct validity of IP as a maladaptive personality style which emphasizes a pervasive sense of inferiority, fear, and self-deprecation.