Sebastian D. McBride

Management of horses showing stereotypic behaviour, owner perception and the implications for welfare

A telephone survey was conducted of 100 racing stables, 100 riding schools and 100 competition establishments (8427 horses in total) to determine what management practices were being applied to horses showing stereotypic behaviour, and to determine the underlying reasons for them by assessing the perceptions and opinions of the people working with the horses. The results indicated that horse owners are concerned about stereotypic behaviour, first, because it reduces the performance of the animal (31,30 and 27 per cent of the owners of racing stables, riding schools and competition establishments respectively), secondly, because it has adverse clinical effects on the horse (52, 55 and 56 per cent), and thirdly, because it reduces the monetary value of the animal (45, 59 and 31 per cent). The belief that these behaviours are learnt or copied also affects the management of affected horses: they are not allowed on to the premises by 4,32 and 17 per cent of owners of racing stables, riding schools and competition establishments, respectively; attempts are made to remove the causal factors of the stereotypy by 35,43 and 36 per cent; the behaviours are physically prevented by 77,67 and 79 per cent, and the affected horses are kept separate from other horses by 39,30 and 48 per cent.

Altered mesoaccumbens and nigro-striatal dopamine physiology is associated with stereotypy development in a non-rodent species

Stress-induced changes in mesoaccumbens dopamine neurophysiology have been associated with the development of stereotypic behaviour in in-bred strains of laboratory rodents. This experiment evaluated whether similar changes are associated with environmentally-induced stereotypic behaviour in a higher-vertebrate species, the horse. D1- and D2-like dopamine receptor densities (B(max)) and dissociation constants (K(d)) were measured in control (n=9) and stereotypy (n=9) horses in the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus, putamen, substantia nigra and ventral tegmentum brain regions. Results revealed that stereotypy horses had significantly higher (P<0.05) dopamine D1 and D2 receptor densities (B(max)) in the nucleus accumbens compared to non-stereotypy controls. D1 receptor densities (B(max)) and D2 receptor affinity (K(d)) were also significantly lower in the caudate nucleus brain region of stereotypy horses (P<0.05). No other significant results were observed. These results demonstrate that stereotypy horses have increased activity within the mesoaccumbens dopamine pathway and, thus, that the development of environmentally-induced stereotypy may be associated with changes in motivational systems within the animal.

Impaired instrumental choice in crib-biting horses (Equus caballus)

Horses displaying an oral stereotypy were tested on an instrumental choice paradigm to examine differences in learning from non-stereotypic counterparts. Stereotypic horses are known to have dysfunction of the dorsomedial striatum, and lesion studies have shown that this region may mediate response-outcome learning. The paradigm was specifically applied in order to examine learning that requires maintenance of response-outcome judgements. The non-stereotypic horses learned, over three sessions, to choose a more immediate reinforcer, whereas the stereotypic horses failed to do so. This suggests an initial behavioural correlate for dorsomedial striatum dysregulation in the stereotypy phenotype.

Psychological factors affecting equine performance

For optimal individual performance within any equestrian discipline horses must be in peak physical condition and have the correct psychological state. This review discusses the psychological factors that affect the performance of the horse and, in turn, identifies areas within the competition horse industry where current behavioral research and established behavioral modification techniques could be applied to further enhance the performance of animals. In particular, the role of affective processes underpinning temperament, mood and emotional reaction in determining discipline-specific performance is discussed. A comparison is then made between the training and the competition environment and the review completes with a discussion on how behavioral modification techniques and general husbandry can be used advantageously from a performance perspective.

The disrupted basal ganglia and behavioural control: An integrative cross-domain perspective of spontaneous stereotypy

Spontaneous stereotypic behaviour (SB) is common in many captive animal species, as well as in humans with some severe psychiatric disorders, and is often cited as being related to general basal ganglia dysfunction. Despite this assertion, there is little in the literature examining SB specifically in terms of the basal ganglia mechanics. In this review, we attempt to fill this gap by offering an integrative, cross-domain perspective of SB by linking what we currently understand about the SB phenotype with the ever-growing literature on the anatomy and functionality of the basal ganglia. After outlining current models of SB from different theoretical perspectives, we offer a broad but detailed overview of normally functioning basal ganglia mechanics, and attempt to link this with current neurophysiological evidence related to spontaneous SB. Based on this we present an empirically derived theoretical framework, which proposes that SB is the result of a dysfunctional action selection system that may reflect dysregulation of excitatory (direct) and inhibitory (indirect and hyperdirect) pathways as well as alterations in mechanisms of behavioural switching. This approach also suggests behaviours that specifically become stereotypic may reflect inbuilt low selection threshold behavioural sequences associated with early development and the species-specific ethogram or, low threshold behavioural sequences that are the result of stress-induced dopamine exposure at the time of performance.

Fast Learning Mapping Schemes for Robotic Hand-Eye Coordination

In aiming for advanced robotic systems that autonomously and permanently readapt to changing and uncertain environments, we introduce a scheme of fast learning and readaptation of robotic sensorimotor mappings based on biological mechanisms underpinning the development and maintenance of accurate human reaching. The study presents a range of experiments, using two distinct computational architectures, on both learning and realignment of robotic hand–eye coordination. Analysis of the results provide insights into the putative parameters and mechanisms required for fast readaptation and generalization from both a robotic and biological perspective.

A mobile, high-throughput semi-automated system for testing cognition in large non-primate animal models of Huntington disease.

BACKGROUND For reasons of cost and ethical concerns, models of neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington disease (HD) are currently being developed in farm animals, as an alternative to non-human primates. Developing reliable methods of testing cognitive function is essential to determining the usefulness of such models. Nevertheless, cognitive testing of farm animal species presents a unique set of challenges. The primary aims of this study were to develop and validate a mobile operant system suitable for high throughput cognitive testing of sheep. NEW METHOD We designed a semi-automated testing system with the capability of presenting stimuli (visual, auditory) and reward at six spatial locations. Fourteen normal sheep were used to validate the system using a two-choice visual discrimination task. Four stages of training devised to acclimatise animals to the system are also presented. RESULTS All sheep progressed rapidly through the training stages, over eight sessions. All sheep learned the 2CVDT and performed at least one reversal stage. The mean number of trials the sheep took to reach criterion in the first acquisition learning was 13.9±1.5 and for the reversal learning was 19.1±1.8. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S) This is the first mobile semi-automated operant system developed for testing cognitive function in sheep. CONCLUSIONS We have designed and validated an automated operant behavioural testing system suitable for high throughput cognitive testing in sheep and other medium-sized quadrupeds, such as pigs and dogs. Sheep performance in the two-choice visual discrimination task was very similar to that reported for non-human primates and strongly supports the use of farm animals as pre-clinical models for the study of neurodegenerative diseases.

Developmental robotics architecture for active vision and reaching

A robotic architecture is presented which is inspired by the process of developmental learning of human infants in their twelve months after birth. The architecture integrates active vision and simple object manipulation (reaching and grasping). Robotic experiments demonstrate how visual and non-visual features determine visual attention and reaching. However, more important and main objective of this paper is the organisation of the architecture with respect to developmental learning of firstly, the behavioural competence of hand-eye coordination and secondly, the cognitive competence of multimodal visual attention. These topics of staged competence learning of behavioural and cognitive skills are discussed. In this discussion we also outline the value of this architecture as reference model for the investigation of mechanisms of staged competence learning in humanoid robots or even biological systems.

Causal factors of oral versus locomotor stereotypy in the horse

ABSTRACT Stereotypic behaviors are commonly observed in domestic equids as they are in a range of captive nondomesticated species. Estimates suggest that 19.5%‐32.5% of horses perform a stereotypy. The presence of these behaviors is thought to indicate suboptimal welfare status and can result in secondary physical pathologies, such as colic, ligament strain, and incisor wear. Relatively little is understood about the etiologies of oral and locomotor stereotypies. Seemingly disparate causal factors have been proposed, including gastric pathology, neural adaptation, and genetic predisposition. In this review, we propose a model of causality that presents separate pathways to the development and continuation of oral behaviors such as crib‐biting, compared with locomotor alternatives (i.e., weaving). The word stereotypy has alarmingly negative connotation among horse keepers. Stereotypic behaviors are often viewed as vices, and therefore, a number of horse owners and establishments attempt to physically prevent the behavior with harsh mechanical devices. Such interventions can result in chronic stress and be further detrimental to equine welfare. Stereotypy has been proposed to be a stress coping mechanism. However, firm evidence of coping function has proven elusive. This review will explore management options directed at both prophylaxis and remediation.

Task Modulated Active Vision For Advanced Human-Robot Interaction

Eye fixation and gaze fixation patterns in general play an important part when humans interact with each other. Also, gaze fixation patterns of humans are highly determined by the task they perform. Our assumption is that meaningful human–robot interaction with robots having active vision components (such a humanoids) is highly supported if the robot system is able to create task modulated fixation patterns. We present an architecture for a robot active vision system equipped with one manipulator where we demonstrate the generation of task modulated gaze control, meaning that fixation patterns are in accordance with a specific task the robot has to perform. Experiments demonstrate different strategies of multi-modal task modulation for robotic active vision where visual and nonvisual features (tactile feedback) determine gaze fixation patterns. The results are discussed in comparison to purely saliency based strategies toward visual attention and gaze control. The major advantages of our approach to multi-modal task modulation is that the active vision system can generate, first, active avoidance of objects, and second, active engagement with objects. Such behaviors cannot be generated by current approaches of visual attention which are based on saliency models only, but they are important for mimicking human-like gaze fixation patterns.